UC-NRLF 


31  an 


o 
CM 

CO 


o 


•  HIDES  &  SKINS 

AND    THE 

MAPOJFACTURE  OF  LEATHER 


A  LAYMAN'S  VIEW 
OF  THE  INDUSTRY 


BY 

JAMES  PAUL  WARBURG 

M  4 

Assistant  Cashier 
The  First  National  Bank  of  Boston 


Second  Printing 


THE  FIRST  NATIONAL  BANK 
OF  BOSTON 


<***? 

1 


COPYRIGHT,  1921 
THE  FIRST  NATIONAL  BANK  OF  BOSTON 


* 

o 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Foreword 
THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

Part  One 
THE  RAW  MATERIAL 

Chapter  i.  Hides. 

Chapter  2.  Skins. 

Chapter  3.  Flaying  and  Curing. 

Chapter  4.  Imperfections. 

Chapter  5.  The  Manufacturing  Materials. 

Part  Two 
THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SOLE  LEATHER 

Chapter  6.  The  Preparatory  Processes. 

Chapter  7.  Vegetable  Tanning  of  Sole  Leather. 

Chapter  8.  Finishing  Sole  Leather. 

Chapter  9.  Other  Heavy  Leathers. 

Part  Three 
THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  UPPER  SHOE  AND  DRESSING  LEATHER 

Chapter  10.  Calf-skins  for  Upper  Shoe  Leather. 

Chapter  u.  Side  and  Patent  Leather. 

Chapter  12.  Goat-skins  and  "Kid"  Upper  Leather. 

Chapter  i3.  Other  Upper  Leather. 

Chapter  14.  Oil  Tannage  of  "Chamois"  Leather. 

Chapter  i5.  Tawing  Glove  Leather. 

Chapter  16.  Book  and  Bag  Leather. 

Part   Four 
THE  ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

Chapter  17.  The  World's  Supply  of  Raw  Material. 

Chapter  18.  Imports  of  Raw  Material  into  the  U.  S. 

Chapter  19.  Exports  of  Leather  from  the  U.  S. 

Chapter  20.  Marketing  and  Prices. 


4C9022 


THE  FIRST  NATIONAL  BANK  OF  BOSTON 

is  a  substantial  stock-holder  in 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  ACCEPTANCE  BANK  INC. 

3 1  Pine  Street,  New  York  City 

This  bank  has  recently  been  organized  to  finance  foreign 
trade.  Over  one  third  of  its  $i5,25o,ooo.  Capital  and  Sur- 
plus is  owned  by  the  foremost  European  Banks  and  bank- 
ing firms,  a  unique  feature,  which  enables  this  new  insti- 
tution to  offer  unparalled  service  in  foreign  fields.  Among 
its  stock-holders  are  also  many  of  the  leading  banks  of  the 
United  States. 

PAUL  M.  WARBURG      D.  G.  WING      F.  ABBOTT  GOODHUE 
Chairman  Vice-Chairman  President 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FRONTISPIECE  PAGE 

Inspection  of  Cattle  before  killing  6 

PART,  ONE.  The  Raw  Material. 

Flaying  Hides  from  Cattle  19 

PART  TWO.  The  Manufacture  of  Sole  Leather. 

Sorting  Hides  before  Washing  in  Drum  Tumbler  26 

Soaking  and  Liming  Pits  with  Crane  Conveyor  26 

Unhairing  -----  29 

Fleshing       -  30 

Trimming  on  the  Beam  31 

Working  Cylinder  of  Fleshing  Machine  (Drawing)  31 

Pit  Tan  Yard  32 

"Rounded"  Hide,  two  Methods  (Drawings)  34 

Bleaching    -                                             -    '  -              37 

Oiling  37 

Setting -Out  37 

Rotting         -              -              -               -  -               38 

Brushing      -  38 

PART  THREE.  The  Manufacture  of  Upper-Shoe  and  Dressing 

Leather. 

Sorting  Skins  42 

Paddle  Vats  -               42 

Chrome  Tanning  Wheel           -               -  -               44 

Shaving  Machine        -  46 

A  Row  of  Fat-Liquoring  Drums  -               46 

Slocum  Staking  Machine  49 

Baker  Staking  Machine  (Grasshopper  type)  49 

Straining      -  50 

Seasoning  and  Drying  50 

Mechanical  Foot  Counter  -               52 

Sorting  and  Making  Bundles  52 

Feed  Eric?  o/*  Splitting  Machine  54 

Delivery  End  showing  two  Splits  54 

Setting  out  Side  Leather  56 

Straining  Side  Leather  56 

"Toggling"  before  Japanning  57 

Varnishing  Room,  Showing  Ovens         -  -               57 

Boarding  the  Grain                   -               -  -               61 

Pressing  Sheep  Skins  63 

Glazing  Machine  -               65 

Serial  Table  Unhairing  Machine  68 

PART  FOUR.  The  Economic  Distribution  of  the  Industry. 

Exports  of  Leather  74 

Price  Fluctuations  (charts)  79 


FOREWORD 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

Probably  every  man  who  has  ever  seen  leather  knows  it  to  be  de- 

ived  from  the  skin  of  various  animals;  but  probably  not  one  in  ten 

iven  thinks  that  he  understands  just  what  has  happened  to  the  raw 

kin  to  make  it  leather;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  scientists  are  to  this 

day  divided  in  their  opinions  as  to  whether  the  change  caused  by  tan- 

ling  is  chemical,  or  physical,  or  both.     The  twofold  object  of  all 

anning  processes  is  to  render  the  skin  imputrescible  and  more  or  less 

elastic.    The  origin  of  how  this  was  first  accomplished  cannot  be  traced, 

or  the  attempt  to  preserve  the  skins  of  animals  dates  back  far  beyond 

ecorded  history  into  the  time  of  primitive  savages.     Specimens  of 

ancient  Egyptian  leather,  said  to  have  been  manufactured  at  least  a 

housand  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  are  still  to  be  seen  in  a 

museum  in  Europe,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Nile 

delta  at  that  time  were  fully  as  versed  in  the  art  of  tanning  as  were 

>ur  ancestors  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

We  may  picture  to  ourselves  an  early  savage,  wearing  a  dried  pelt 
of  some  animal  as  a  cloak.     We  may  think  of  him  at  first  surprised, 
nd  then  considerably  annoyed  to  find  that  the  softness  of  the  skin 
entirely  disappeared  as  soon  as  it  was  thoroughly  dry,  giving  place  to 
an  exceedingly  disagreeable  horniness.    His  first  reaction  would  be  to 
soak  the  skin  in  water  in  an  attempt  to  render  it  once  more  supple, 
t  was  probably  in  this  way  that  the  natives  of  Japan  discovered  that 
the  waters  of  certain  streams  had  a  softening  and  preservative  effect 
upon  skins,  for  they  flowed  over  a  bed-rock  of  alum.     Until  very  re- 
cently Japanese  white  leather  was  produced  in  this  primitive  manner. 

Failing  such  a  fortunate  freak  of  nature,  our  savage  would  find  to 
his  chagrin  that  as  soon  as  his  pelt  had  dried,  it  became  once  more 
lard,  and  furthermore  began  to  show  signs  of  decay.  We  may  picture 
him  then  trying  the  effect  of  animal  fats,  or  perhaps  of  smoke,  or  in 
ome  way  discovering  the  preservative  effect  of  twigs  and  pieces  of 
bark.  In  any  one  of  these  ways,  provided  it  were  continued  long 
enough,  he  might  obtain  a  rudimentary  tannage.  To  be  sure,  he  would 
be  far  from  producing  a  leather  that  could  be  made  into  a  modern 


n 


shoe,  but  nevertheless  he  would  possess  a  skin  practically  immune  from 
decay,  and  softened  to  a  certain  degree. 

The  progress  in  the  development  of  leather  manufacture  until 
mediaeval  times  was  comparatively  negligible,  and  historical  data  are 
lacking  by  which  to  trace  its  course.  We  know,  however,  that  by  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  manufacture  of  curried  leather  was 
well  established  in  Hungary,  and  that  Spain  was  at  that  time  producing 
a  fair  quality  of  morocco.  Gradually  the  industry  spread  over  Europe, 
America,  and  other  parts  of  the  world;  machinery  was  slowly  per- 
fected to  take  the  place  of  manual  operations;  new  finishes,  such  as 
waxed  calf  and  alum-tanned  kid,  were  added  to  the  old  Spanish  crup 
and  cordovan  leathers;  and  finally,  about  thirty  years  ago,  scientific 
chemistry  evolved  the  chroming  process,  by  which  it  is  estimated  that 
ninety  per  cent,  of  the  world's  upper  shoe  leather  is  made  to-day. 

The  remarkable  feature  of  the  industry,  even  now,  remains  the  fact 
that  it  rests  primarily  on  an  empirical  basis,  far  more  so  than  any 
other  of  our  primary  industries.  While  it  is  probably  true  that  medi- 
cinal herbs  constituted  the  first  chemical  discovery  of  man,  it  may  well 
be  claimed  that  industrial  chemistry,  to  which  our  present  civilization 
owes  so  many  of  its  material  adjuncts,  originated  in  the  preservation 
of  animal  skins. 

^^  Besides  the  usage  of  leather  for  boot  soles  and  uppers,  there  are  an 
<-  infinite  number  of  purposes  to  which  it  has  been  adapted,  some  of 
which  it  will  be  impossible  to  treat  here  in  even  a  cursory  manner. 
It  is  not  intended  by  these  omissions  in  any  way  to  belittle  the  im- 
portance of  the  subjects  which  the  author  has  felt  to  lie  beyond  the 
scope  of  this  pamphlet.  Furthermore,  in  order  to  avoid  duplication, 
the  arbitrary  expedient  has  been  adopted  of  discussing  in  Part  Two 
only  the  vegetable  tannage  of  sole  leather,  and  in  Part  Three  only  the 
chrome  process  for  making  upper  boot  leather.  In  this  manner  each 
method  of  tanning  is  taken  up  in  detail  in  the  field  where  it  finds  its 
greatest  application,  but  it  must  not  be  inferred  by  the  lay  reader  that 
sole  leather  is  never  chromed,  or  that  no  upper  leather  is  made  by  the 
vegetable  processes.  While  this  fact  is  brought  out  later  on,  it  cannot 
be  too  strongly  emphasized  at  the  outset. 

To  attempt  a  discussion  of  the  entire  industry  within  so  brief  a  space 
is  at  best  a  precarious  undertaking.  For  purposes  of  simplification  the 
subject  has  been  divided  into  four  groups:  1.  The  Raw  Material;  that 
is,  hides  and  skins,  what  they  are,  where  they  come  from,  how  they  are 
obtained,  and  their  imperfections;  also  the  materials  by  means  of  which 
they  are  made  into  leather.  2.  The  Manufacture  of  Sole  and  other 
Heavy  Leather.  3.  The  Manufacture  of  Boot  Upper,  Glove,  Book,  and 
other  Light  Leather.  4.  The  Economic  Distribution  of  the  Industry. 


(Each  of  these  groups  is  in  itself  a  subject  for  a  book  far  longer  than 
this. 

The  illustrations  contained  in  this  booklet  were  made  available 
through  the  courtesy  of  A.  C.  Lawrence  Leather  Company,  Howes 
Brothers  Company,  Swift  and  Company,  Turner  Tanning  Machinery 
Company  and  the  Associated  Industries  of  Massachusetts.  To  these 
and  many  other  friends  of  The  First  National  Bank  of  Boston  in,  the 
leather  industries  the  author  is  indebted  not  only  for  helpful  advice 
and  criticism,  but  for  exceptional  opportunities  for  first-hand  observa- 
tion. Much  of  the  material  contained  in  subsequent  pages  has  been 
derived  from  other  books  and  articles,  especially  from  Mr.  K.  J. 
Adcock's  admirable  study  of  the  industry,  and  valuable  assistance  was 
received  from  various  trade  publications.  Finally,  too  much  credit  can- 
not be  given  to  Mr.  Perry  D.  Keating,  of  the  staff  of  The  First  National 
Bank  of  Boston,  for  his  assistance  in  much  of  the  research  work  and 
compilation  of  statistical  data. 

Boston,  Mass. 
April  19,  1921. 


THE  FIRST  NATIONAL  BANK  OF  BOSTON 

jointly  with  the  National  Bank  of  Commerce  in  New 

York  owns  5o%  of  the  stock  of 

THE  FRENCH  AMERICAN  BANKING  CORPORATION 

New  York  City 

This  corporation  is  owned  by  banks  whose  combined 
resources  are  over  $i,3oo,ooo,ooo.,  the  largest  interest,  5o% 
being  held  by  the  Comptoir  National  d'Escompte  de  Paris. 

Through  this  connection  the  corporation  can  avail  itself 
of  over  226  branches  in  France,  England,  Spain,  Egypt, 
Tunis,  Madagascar,  Australia,  and  India.  The  Comptoir  is 
also  the  Paris  and  London  agent  of  the  French  Colonial 
Banks  in  Algeria,  Morocco,  Indo-China,  East  Africa,  Mar- 
tinique, Guadaloupe,  and  French  Guiana. 


PART  ONE 

THE  RAW  MATERIAL 


CHAPTER  I 

HIDES 

The  hides  and  skins  of  various  animals  form,  as  we  know,  the  raw 
material   from  which  leather  is  manufactured.     The  term,  "Hides,"   "Hie 
is  applied  to  coverings  of  the  larger  animals,  such  as  full-grown  cattle, 
horses,  or  buffalo;  while  technically  "Skins"  are  derived  from  smaller 
animals,  for  example,  calves,  sheep,  or  goats.     The  intermediate  size 
between  a  large  "skin"  and  a  small  "hide"  is  known  to  the  trade  as  a   «sfa 
"kip."    This  term,  however,  is  not  very  clearly  defined,  being  used  with 
various  meanings  in  different  parts  of  the  world.    Where  the  pelt  of  a   «~. 
wild  animal  is  dressed,  the  furrier  always  refers  to  it  as  a  skin,  no 
matter  what  the  size  of  the  animal. 

The  heavier  grades  of  hides  are  generally  manufactured  into  sole 
and  belting  leather;  those  of  extra  large  surface — "spready"  hides — 
are  often  used  for  upholstery;  and  in  some  cases,  as  we  shall  see  later, 
hides  are  split  into  several  layers  or  thicknesses,  and  by  this  means 
used  for  the  production  of  boot  uppers  of  a  variety  known  to  the 
trade  as  "Side  Leather."     As  a  very  general  rule,  one  may  say  that   Ski* 
hides,   because   of   their   greater   thickness,   are  particularly   the   raw    UPP 
material  of  the  sole  and  heavy  leather  tanner,  while  skins  go  naturally    ^eat 
into  the  process  of  making  upper  shoe,  bag,  and  glove  leather.     In- 
asmuch as  these  two  industries  are  entirely  separate  and  distinct,  it 
will  be  advantageous  to  the  reader  to  bear  in  mind  this  segregation 
from  the  start. 

The  hides  used  by  sole-leather  tanners  in  this  country  are  of  both 
foreign  and  domestic  origin.  The  chief  source  of  imported  hides  are  Fort 
the  meat-freezing  plants  of  South  America,  which  of  recent  years  have  Hifa 
become  a  dominant  factor  not  only  in  the  world's  supply  of  beef  and 
mutton,  but  of  hides  and  sheepskins  as  well.  South  American  packer 
hides  are  known  to  the  trade  as  "Frigorificos,"  and  are  preferred  by 
many  tanners  over  all  other  varieties.  South  American  green-salted 
hides  from  smaller  killing-plants  are  known  as  "Saladeros"  and  "Mat- 
aderos."  Some  hides  are  imported  also  from  other  countries,  and  they 
are  used  both  for  the  manufacture  of  sole  and  upper  leather.  South 
Africa  and  Australia  produce  large  quantities  of  first  class  hides,  but 
imports  into  the  United  States  from  these  sources  are  not  very  heavy. 


Domestic 
Sources 


Classifi- 
cation 


East  India  hides,  often  known  as  kips,  because  of  the  small  size  of  the 
Indian  cattle,  China  hides,  Russian  horse,  and  Javanese  water-buffalo 
hides  also  find  their  way  to  this  country  in  smaller  quantities. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  chief  domestic  supply  is  derived  from  the 
great  meat-packing  establishments  of  the  Middle  West.  "Packer"  hides 
not  only  dominate  the  markets  in  this  country,  but  exercise  a  strong 
influence  on  hide  markets  throughout  the  world.  Quite  a  large  supply 
also  comes  from  the  smaller  abattoirs  in  various  cities,  and  to  these 
must  be  added  a  considerable  number  obtained  from  local  butchers 
throughout  the  country.  Both  "City"  and  "Country"  hides,  which  com- 
pare to  "Saladeros"  and  "Mataderos,"  command  a  lower  price  than 
"Packers,"  because  they  are  not  as  a  rule  so  well  taken-off  or  cured. 

All  hides  are  bought  and  sold  on  a  basis  of  so  many  cents  per  pound. 
They  are  classified  by:  1.  Geographical  origin;  2.  Take-off;  3. 
Weight  and  sex  of  the  animal;  and  4.  Freedom  from  defects.  Thus, 
to  choose  a  random  example:  "Pennsylvania,  Country,  Light  Native 
Steer,  Free  from  Grubs."  WTe  shall  discuss  shortly  the  various  defects 
which  are  found  in  hides  and  skins,  but  before  leaving  the  subject  of 
hide  classification,  it  might  be  well  to  glance  at  a  list  of  those  terms 
which  refer  to  weight  and  sex,  and  to  the  brand  marks. 

PACKER  HIDES 

Heavy  Native  Steer  Free  of  brand  60  Ibs.  and  up 

Spready   Native   Steer  Free  of  brand  6l/2  ft.  across 

Light  Native  Steer  Free  of  brand  50  to  60  Ibs. 

Extreme  Light  Native  Steer  Free  of  brand  25  to  50  Ibs. 
Heavy  Butt  Branded  Steer,  Branded  on  butt,  not  over  18  in. 

above  butt  60  Ibs.  and  up 

Light  Butt  Branded  Steer  Same  50  to  60  Ibs. 

Extreme  Light  Butt  Branded  Steer  Same  25  to  50  Ibs. 

Heavy  Colorado  Steer,  Side  and  butt  branded,  spready  and  thin  60  Ibs.  and  up. 

Light  Colorado  Steer  Same  50  to  60  Ibs. 

Extreme  Light  Colorado  Steer  Same  25  to  50  Ibs. 
Heavy  Texas  Steer,  Side  and  butt  branded,  smaller  and  plumper 

than  Colorados  60  Ibs.   and  up 

Light  Texas  Steer  Same  50  to  60  Ibs. 

Extreme  Light  Texas  Steer  Same  25  to  50  Ibs. 

Heavy  Native  Cows  Free  of  brand  55  Ibs.  and  up 

Light  Native  Cows  Free  of  brand  Under  55  Ibs. 

Branded  Cows  Branded  25  Ibs.  and  up 

Native  Bull  Free  of  brand  25  Ibs.  and  up 

Branded  Bull  Branded  25  Ibs.  and  up 


Buffs    . 
Heavy  Cows 
Extremes 
Heavy  Steers 
Bulls 
Branded  Hides 


COUNTRY  HIDES 

Free  of  Brand 

Free  of  Brand 

Free  of  Brand 

Free  of  Brand 

Free  of  Brand 

Free  of  Brand 


Cow  or  Bull  Hide  45-60  Ibs. 

60  Ibs.   and   up 

25-45  Ibs. 

55  Ibs.  and  up 

60  Ibs.  and  up 

all  weights 


CHAPTER  II 

SKINS 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  dealt  briefly  with  the  raw  material 
which  is  made  into  sole  leather.  When  we  come  to  consider  the  var- 
ious kinds  of  skins  which  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  so-called 
dressing  leathers,  we  are  at  once  confronted  with  such  an  array  of 
different  varieties,  that,  in  order  to  avoid  hopeless  confusion,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  confine  ourselves  to  a  few  of  the  most  commonly 
used. 

Calf,  goat,  and  sheep  skins  form  by  far  the  greatest  proportion  of  the  Kinds  of 
skins  of  smaller  animals  which  are  used  for  making  leather.  It  is  well  Skin 
to  remember  also  that  cattle  hides,  kips,  and  horse  hides  are  extensively 
used  for  making  boot  uppers  and  bags.  The  "shell,"  or  hide  from 
the  buttocks  of  the  horse,  is  particularly  valuable  because  of  its  fine 
grain,  and  is  made  into  cordovan  leather,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
horse-hide  is  chiefly  used  for  japanning  into  so-called  "Patent"  side 
leather.  Pig-skin  is  an  excellent  material  for  bag  and  saddlery  leather, 
the  reason  for  its  limited  use  being  the  difficulty  of  flaying  it  from  the 
carcass.  Other  less  frequently  used  skins  are  those  of  the  dog,  kan- 
garoo, alligator,  crocodile,  seal,  frog,  chamois,  antelope,  and  various 
;inds  of  deer. 

Kips  and  calf  skins  are  obtained,  generally  speaking,  from  the  same 
sources  as  hides.  The  bulk  of  the  calf  skins  used  in  this  country  come  Calf  Skin 
from  the  Packers,  others  from  outside  city  and  country  butchers,  while 
a  large  quantity  are  imported  from  Europe,  South  America,  India,  and 
other  parts  of  the  world.  The  Chicago  Packers  sell  their  calf  skins  on 
a  basis  of  cents  per  pound  of  weight;  in  most  other  markets,  however, 
the  skins  are  graded  into  groups  by  weight  and  then  sold  on  a  fixed 
price  per  skin.  Different  breeds  of  cattle,  the  age  of  the  calf  and  its 
condition  when  killed,  as  well  as  the  actual  condition  of  the  skin  itself, 
are  all  factors  in  determining  value.  The  chief  use  of  calf  skin  leather 
is  in  making  high  grade  men's  boot  uppers,  and  the  heavier  uppers 
for  women's  shoes. 

Goat  skins  are  the  material  from  which  are  made  the  well-known 
glazed  kid  uppers  for  light,  high  grade  men's  and  women's  footwear. 
The  leather  made  from  these  skins  is  easily  distinguishable  by  its 


Goat  Skin 


Sheep-skin 


Pig  Skin 


Other 
Animals 


beautiful  clear  grain,  which  is  more  uniformly  defined  than  that  of 
calf  skin.  The  chief  difficulty  lies  in  obtaining  skins  of  sufficient  sub- 
stance to  form  a  strong  leather.  Besides  uppers  many  other  articles 
are  made  from  the  skins  of  these  animals;  moroccos  for  book-binding, 
glove,  bag  and  upholstery  leather,  and  sundry  articles  such  as  purses, 
pocket-books,  and  ladies'  belts.  Practically  no  goats  are  bred  in  this 
country,  except  in  Texas,  so  that  the  vast  majority  of  the  skins  used  are 
imported  from  foreign  countries.  Asia  Minor,  Spain,  Austria,  and  the 
Cape  are  the  chief  sources  of  the  kind  of  skins  most  suitable  for  glove 
leather,  while  the  best  skins  for  making  glace  kid  are  derived  from 
India,  China,  Brazil,  Mexico,  the  Cape,  and  other  Asiatic  countries. 
One  of  the  highest  grades,  known  as  Patnas,  come  from  the  Indian 
province  of  Behar.  The  most  desirable  skins  for  the  manufacture  of 
morocco  are  produced  on  the  European  continent,  particularly  in  Nor- 
way, Spain,  and  Germany.  In  this  country  goat  skins  are  usually 
bought  at  a  price  per  dozen. 

Sheep  are  raised  in  a  great  many  parts  of  the  world,  in  fact  almost 
everywhere  except  in  countries  where  the  excessive  density  of  the  pop- 
ulation has  made  grazing  impossible.  Nevertheless  good  sheep  skins 
are  not  as  abundant  as  might  be  expected.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
these  animals  are  raised  primarily  for  wool  and  mutton,  and  that,  as 
a  general  rule,  the  higher  the  quality  of  the  wool  obtained,  the  less 
substantial  is  the  skin.  A  large  supply  of  domestic  sheep  skins  is 
obtained  from  the  slaughter-houses  of  the  Middle  West,  but  a  great 
number  are  also  imported  from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Africa,  and 
other  countries.  South  America  produces  tremendous  quantities  of 
sheep,  but  the  skins  are  sent  chiefly  to  the  great  pulleries  at  Mazamet, 
France.  !  Sheep  skins  are  used  for  making  the  cheaper  grades  of  dress- 
ing leathers,  and  also,  particularly  those  from  the  Cape,  for  gloves. 
A  common  practice  is  to  split  the  skins  of  these  animals,  using  the 
outer,  or  grain  half  (the  skiver)  for  glove  leather,  and  the  lining  for 
"chamois"  or  parchment. 

Pig  skin  yields  a  leather  which,  for  certain  purposes,  such  as  sad- 
dlery, cannot  be  approached  by  any  substitute.  Nevertheless  it  is  so 
costly  to  remove  these  skins,  because  of  the  large  quantity  of  fat  that 
is  lost  in  the  process,  that  most  killers  prefer  to  leave  the  skin  on  the 
carcass.  Scotland  and  Germany  are  practically  the  only  countries 
which  produce  pig  skin  in  large  quantity.  Imitations,  particularly  for 
bags  and  portmanteaus,  are  numerous,  but  are  detectible  by  the  absence 
of  the  holes  left  by  the  bristles. 

We  have  already  mentioned  some  of  the  less  frequently  used  skins  of 
other  mammals  as  well  as  those  of  some  of  the  amphibious  reptiles,  and 
even  fish.  Given  sufficient  incentive,  there  are  practically  no  skins 


(161 


from  which  some  sort  of  leather  could  not  be  made,  and  it  is  only 
because  we  have  always  had   an  ample  supply  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 

:  goats,   that  these  have   become  the   standard   raw   materials   for   the 

;  leather  industry. 


17 


CHAPTER  III 


Much 

Inexpert 

Flaying 


Modern 
Methods 


American 

Packer 

System 


FLAYING  AND  CURING 

The  methods  by  which  the  hides  and  skins  are  removed  from  the 
carcasses  of  slaughtered  animals  vary  a  great  deal,  according  to  the 
ideas  prevalent  in  different  countries.  Moreover,  a  vast  number  of 
butchers  still  flay  in  an  exceedingly  antiquated  manner,  by  which  the 
hides  are  rendered  practically  useless  to  the  leather  manufacturer. 
Not  only  do  inexpert  slaughtermen  often  misshape  the  hides,  instead  of 
leaving  them  square,  but  frequently  they  actually  cut  holes  or  deep 
scores  through  careless  handling  of  their  knives.  In  many  cases  this 
is  due  to  ignorance,  in  others  to  ill-warranted  haste.  Kosher  killing 
somewhat  reduces  the  value  of  a  hide,  because  the  entire  throat  is 
slashed. 

The  French  process  of  mechanical  flaying,  originally  invented  about 
ten  years  ago  by  Gaston  Tainturier,  is  in  great  favor  in  Europe,  and 
produces  excellent  results,  as  does  also  the  English  method  of  using 
a  device  known  as  the  tail-extractor.  The  most  efficient  systems,  how- 
ever, are  probably  those  developed  by  the  American  Packers,  and 
more  recently  by  the  freezing  plants  of  South  America. 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  how  various  kinds  of  animals  are 
slaughtered,  the  procedure  in  the  American  plants  is  that  of  hanging 
the  animal,  immediately  after  it  has  been  killed,  by  one  or  both  of  its 
hind  legs.  It  then  travels  slowly  along  an  overhead  conveyor  past  a 
considerable  number  of  workmen,  each  one  of  whom  has  a  specific 
operation  to  perform.  Thus,  taking  the  case  of  cattle,  which  are  first 
stunned  by  a  severe  blow  on  the  head,  the  first  man,  known  as  the 
sticker,  performs  his  task  of  sticking  the  throat  and  allowing  the  blood 
to  drain.  The  "Header"  then  starts  to  remove  the  hide  from  the  head, 
the  "Leg-breakers"  loosen  it  from  the  shanks,  and  the  "Floorsmen,"  or 
"Siders,"  remove  the  skin  from  the  sides.  For  this  last  operation  the 
animal  is  laid  on  its  back.  After  it  is  once  more  hung  head-down,  it 
passes  in  succession  the  "Rumpers,"  "Fell-cutters,"  and  "Backers," 
whose  names  imply  the  parts  of  the  animal  from  which  they  detach  the 
hide.  The  process  is  completed  by  the  "Droppers,"  who  pull  the  hide 
off  the  neck  and  shoulders,  and  drop  it  on  the  floor  for  inspection. 

The  foreman  goes  over  each  hide  with  great  care,  and  if  he  dis- 
covers any  cuts  or  scores,  he  is  at  once  able  to  tell  from  their  location 


$18] 


on  the  hide  which  workman  is  responsible.  Accurate  check  is  kept 
of  all  mistakes  made  in  the  work,  so  that  an  inefficient  operative  does 
not  last  for  any  length  of  time. 

After  the  ears  have  been  cut,  and  the  switches  trimmed  from  the 
tails,  the  hides  are  graded  into  various  selections,  such  as  Branded 
Cows,  Heavy  Native  Steers,  etc. 

Argentine  Frigorifico  hides  compare  favorably  with  those  taken  off 
by  the  American  Packers,  and  are  preferred  by  most  sole  leather  tan- 
jners  because  they  are  cleaner,  more  carefully  trimmed,  and  fleshed. 
iThe  practice  there  is  to  bathe  the  cattle  thoroughly  before  killing,  and 
!  afterwards  to  wash  the  hides.  The  hair  side  is  scraped  under  a  spray 
of  water  and  the  flesh  side  severely  brushed,  after  which  the  surplus 
flesh  is  scraped  off.  Accordingly  there  is  less  waste  material  on  these 
hides  than  on  any  other  kind,  and  as  a  rule,  they  command  the  highest 
price  per  pound.  In  the  same  way  "Packers"  are  given  a  higher  value 
than  "Cities"  or  "Countries." 

The  flaying  process  varies,  of  course,  with  calves,  sheep,  goats,  or 
other  animals,  but  the  general  principle  remains  the  same.  The  smaller 
and  more  tender  the  skin,  the  greater  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  dam- 
|  aging  it. 


Check   on 
Workmen 


Frigorificos 


Flaying  Hides  from  Cattle 


$19 


After  the  hide  or  skin  has  been  removed  from  the  animal  it  is  neces- 
sary not  only  to  wash  it  as  clean  of  dirt,  manure,  and  blood  as  pos- 

Curing  sible,  but  also  in  some  manner  to  preserve  it  against  decay.    The  most 

primitive  way  is  simply  to  dry  the  hides  in  a  cool  place  away  from 
the  sun,  before  shipping  them  away  in  loose  bundles.  This  practice 
is  still  followed  in  China,  and  to  a  certain  extent,  in  India,  Arabia, 
South  America,  and  Mexico.  Even  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances a  dried  hide  will  lose  considerable  substance,  because  of  the 

Drying  long  soaking  required  before  it  can  be  put  in  the  lime  liquor.     Very 

Unsatis-  frequently,  moreover,  dried  hides  and  skins  are  ruined  by  exposure  to 
heat,  or  by  the  fact  that  they  were  dried  too  fast.  In  the  latter  case  a 
certain  amount  of  moisture  remains  in  the  center  of  the  hide  and 
quickly  develops  putrefaction,  one  indication  of  which  is  the  loosen- 
ing of  the  hair,  known  as  "hair-slip." 

A  better  method  is  that  of  curing  the  skins  with  salt  and  then  drying 
them,  or  of  shipping  them  wet-salted  to  the  tanner.    The  latter  process 

Scdtin*  *s  ^at  usec^  ky  the  American  Packers,  and  hides  or  skins  treated  in  this 

manner  are  usually  referred  to  as  "green  salted,"  as  opposed  to  the 
dry  salted  condition  in  which  most  foreign  hides  are  received.  Frigori- 
ficos  are  soaked  in  brine  and  then  shipped  in  a  green  salted  condition. 
The  use  of  impure  salts,  especially  those  containing  gypsum,  and  also 
the  excessive  and  uneven  spreading  of  salt  are  likely  to  cause  stains, 

Green  which  no  amount  of  later  treatment  will  completely  remove.     In  mod- 

Saltmg  ern  packing  plants  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  both  in  putting  the 

hides  in  the  salt  beds,  and  in  brushing  them  thoroughly  when  they  are 
taken  out.  Inasmuch  as  hides  are  sold  for  so  many  cents  per  pound, 
it  is  essential  that  vendor  and  purchaser  agree  on  the  amount  of  tare 
caused  by  salt,  manure  and  moisture. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  preserving  skins  is  to  pickle  them  in 

Pickled  casks  of  brine,  or  acid  and  salt  solution.    This  is  frequently  done  with 

sheep  and  goat  skins,  but  cannot  be  applied  to  hides,  because  of  their 
size.  Skins  received  from  foreign  countries,  in  this  condition  are  very 
popular  with  the  tanners  of  fine  dressing  leathers. 

It  has  long  been  the  practice  in  India  to  give  the  skins  a  rude  pre- 

"India  Hminary  tannage  before  shipping  them  to  other  parts  of  the  world. 

tanned"  Such  skins  are  referred  to  by  the  trade  as  "India-tanned,"  a  term  mis- 
leading to  the  layman,  because  the  tannage  is  only  partial,  and  in  effect 
amounts  to  nothing  more  than  a  method  of  curing,  since  the  majority 
of  tanners  begin  by  eliminating  its  effects. 


$20} 


Defects 


Anthrax 


CHAPTER  IV 

IMPERFECTIONS 

Through  being  carelessly  flayed  from  the  carcass,  hides  and  skins    Take-off  or 
may  be  cut,  scored,  or  improperly  rounded.    Through  imperfect  curing    CunnS 
they  may  be  excessively  horny,  putrefied  within,  stained  by  salt,  or  per- 
manently discolored  by  the  iron  in  bloody  fragments  of  flesh  which 
were  not  removed.    These  are  the  defects  caused  by  human  carelessness 
or  ignorance,  against  which  the  tanner  is  on  his  guard.     In  addition 
there  are  a  considerable  number  of  natural  causes  which  often  decrease 
or  destroy  the  value  of  an  animal's  skin. 

All  countries  have  to  contend  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  diseases 
affecting  live-stock.  Perhaps  the  most  virulent  of  all  is  the  anthrax 
bacillus,  which  not  only  lays  waste  herds  of  cattle,  but  is  easily  com- 
municated to  other  animals  and  to  human  beings.  Pasteur  first  made 
his  famous  discovery  of  immunity  rendered  by  innoculation  with  the 
attenuated  virus  with  this  germ,  but  even  today,  because  of  the  extreme 
danger  from  this  disease,  it  is  customary  in  all  civilized  countries  to 
destroy  and  cremate  infected  cattle.  Dry  hides  from  China  and  Russia 
;not  infrequently  contain  anthrax  spores,  and  for  this  reason  they  are 
not  permitted  to  enter  this  country  without  first  being  disinfected  with 
bichloride  of  mercury. 

A  milder  fever,  well-known  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  is  the 
hoof-and  mouth  disease,  which  is,  however,  curable  and  leaves  no 
lasting  damage.  "Tick"  fever  caused  great  wastage  in  our  Southern 
States  until  it  was  discovered  that  "dipping"  the  cattle  three  or  four 
times  a  year  prevented  the  tick  fly  from  perpetrating  its  annual  outrage. 

Greater  than  the  damage  caused  by  all  animal  diseases,  except  in 
abnormal  times,  is  the  nefarious  work  of  the  little  insects  known  as 
"grubs."  Of  these  there  are  two  chief  offenders,  the  hypoderma  bovis, 
and  the  hypoderma  lineatum,  both  commonly  referred  to  as  warble- 
flies.  These  insects  lay  their  eggs  on  the  hides  of  cattle,  and  the 
larvae  eat  their  way  through  the  hide.  Whether  they  eat  in  or  out- 
wards is  still  a  matter  of  acrimonious  debate;  some  scientists  contend 
that  the  egg  is  laid  on  the  fet-locks  of  cattle,  from  which  they  are 
licked  off, — thus  finding  their  way  into  the  digestive  tract, — and  that 
they  then  eat  their  way  out  usually  along  the  spine;  others  maintain 


$21 


Other 
Diseases 


Grubs 


that  the  eggs  are  laid  along  the  spine,  where  the  animal  cannot  lick 
them  off,  and  that  the  larvae  then  penetrate  the  hide  from  the  exterior. 
In  any  event,  no  successful  cure  has  yet  been  developed,  and  the  annual 
wastage  is  tremendous.  In  this  country  it  is  customary  to  consider  a 
hide  "grubby"  if  it  contains  more  than  5  holes,  during  the  months 
when  the  larva  is  doing  its  damage.  A  grubby  hide  is  classed  as  a 
No.  2  hide  and  sells  for  a  lower  price  per  pound. 

Sheep  Sheep,  while  not  affected  by  the  warble-fly,  have  other  similar  in- 

Defects  sect  enemies,  such  as  the  blow-fly  and  ticks.     They  also  suffer  from 

scabs,  and  during  the  winter  months  prior  to  shearing  the  grain  of 

their  skin  is  wrinkled,  a  defect  known  as  "cockle,"  the  cause  of  which 

is  not  definitely  recognized. 

Scratches  -^-11   animals,  but  particularly  sheep  and  goats,   scratch  themselves 

on  briars  or  cactus  plant,  or — though  this  ought  not  to  be  permitted — 
on  barbed  wire.  India  goat  skins  are  particularly  likely  to  show  scars 
of  this  nature,  which  mar  the  grain  and  reduce  the  value  of  the  skin. 
The  origin,  grade,  take-off,  weight,  sex,  and  freedom  from  imper- 
fections are  all  things  which  the  careful  buyer  of  hides  and  skins 
must  watch,  in  order  that  he  may  be  able  to  estimate  correctly  what 
his  yield  of  leather  will  be. 


{221 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  MANUFACTURING  MATERIALS 


Making 
Leather 


Before  proceeding  to  follow  out  the  different  methods  of  making 
leather  from  hides  and  skins,  it  may  be  useful  to  devote  a  brief  space 
to  the  enumeration  of  those  materials,  which,  when  applied  to  the  skin, 
convert  it  into  leather.  To  do  so,  without  anticipating  some  of  the 
processes  of  manufacture,  is  not  an  easy  task,  and  yet  it  would  seem 
necessary  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  on  the  one  hand,  and  lack  of 
consecutive  continuity  on  the  other. 

Taking  only  those  processes  the  products  of  which  are  most  familiar 
to  the  average  reader,  there  are  four  general  ways  in  which  leather  is 
made : 

1.  By  vegetable  tannage;  most  commonly  used  for  sole,  belting^ pour 
and  heavy  bag  leathers.    Also  for  upper  leathers.  s  Principal 

2.  By  "chroming;"  used  chiefly  for  calf  and  kid  upper  leathers,   Means  of 
but  also  for  sole,  belting,  and  other  leathers. 

3.  By  tawing;  used  for  glove  leather. 

4.  By  oil  tannage;  used  for  making  "chamois"  or  wash  leather. 
In   addition  there  are  certain   other  mineral   and  chemical   tannages 
with  which  we  shall  not  concern  ourselves  here.     But  it  is  important 
to   realize  that  the  four  cardinal  methods  mentioned  above  are  fre- 
quently employed  in  various  combinations  with  each  other,  as  we  shall 
see  later. 

Vegetable  tannage  is  obtained  by  soaking  the  raw  skin  in  a  solu- 
tion containing  either  the  twigs,  barks,  leaves,  roots,  or  fruits  of  cer- 
tain trees  and  shrubs,  or  else  extracts  made  from  them.  There  are  a 
vast  number  of  these  vegetable  materials  which  contain  the  colloidal 
substance,  known  as  tannin.  A  few  of  the  most  important  are : 

(a).  Oak,  Hemlock,  Willow,  Wattle,  Chestnut,  Spruce,  and  Que- 
bracho. The  barks  of  these  trees,  or  extracts  made  from  their  wood 
or  bark,  are  very  extensively  used.  Quebracho,  a  South  American 
tree,  yields  a  tannin  which  is  rapidly  displacing  Oak  in  this  country. 
The  chief  American  sole  leather  tannages  are:  Oak  (Quebracho), 
Hemlock,  and  Union  (mixed  Oak  and  Hemlock). 

(b).  Sumach  and  Gambier  are  the  most  important  shrubs,  both 
containing  a  tannin  much  used  in  tanning  light  dressing  leathers,  or  in 


(23) 


Vegetable 
Tannage 


Trees 


Shrubs 


finishing  chromed  calf  and  goat  skins.  Gambier,  which  comes  from 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  is  also  used  extensively  to  strengthen  bark 
liquors  in  sole  leather  tanning. 

Fruits  ^c)       Valonia,  made  from  the  acorns  of  a  Near  Eastern   oak  tree, 

and  Myrobalans,  the  unripe  fruit  of  an  Indian  tree,  are  the  most  com- 
monly used  fruit  extracts.  Both  contain  a  large  proportion  of  ellagic 
acid,  which  deposits  on  leather  what  the  trade  knows  as  "bloom."  Both 
are  used  chiefly  in  conjunction  with  other  materials. 

Besides  these  there  are  a  tremendous  number  of  other  vegetable  tan- 
ning materials,  (in  a  subsequent  chapter  we  shall  note  some  of  the 
combinations  used  to  obtain  various  effects. 

The  Most  of  the  calf  and  kid  upper  leather  is  now  chromed,  while  side 

Chrome  leather  is  usually  chromed  and  then  sometimes  tanned  superficially 
Process  with  vegetable  materials;  the  chrome  process  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  mineral  tannages.  One  of  its  great  advantages  is  the 
speed  with  which  it  is  completed,  as  against  the  great  length  of  time 
required  for  most  vegetable  tannins  to  complete  their  work.  The 
basis  of  this  process,  which  we  shall  analyze  more  fully  in  due  course, 
is  Chrome  Salt.  ) 

Tawing  Nearly  all  minerals  have  a  tanning,  or  more  properly,   a  tawing 

with  effect  on  hides  and  skins,  but  besides  chrome  salts,  the  only  other 

Alum  process  which  finds  wide  commercial  application  .is  that   of  tawing 

glove  leather  with  alum  and  salt.    Formaldehyde,  potassium  salts,  and 

other  minerals  have  been  used  in  combination  tannages. 

Oil  Animal  oils,  such  as  cod,  whale,  or  menhaden  oil,  are  oxidized  and 

Tannage         used  to  tan  wash  leather,  which  as  we  shall  see,  is  made  from  the  flesh- 
splits  of  sheep  skins;  this  process  is  also  used  for  making  glove  leather. 
("Fats  and  brains  are  the  tanning  agent  used  for  making  a  particular 
kind  of  soft  leather,  known  as  "crown"  or  "Helvetia." 

There  are  numberless  combinations  being  tried  out  every  day,  but 
the  above  represent  the  most  commonly  used  materials,  and  form  the 
basis  of  most  tannages  in  commercial  use  at  the  present  time.  We 
shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  here  the  numerous  subsidiary  materials, 
such  as  dye-stuffs  and  chemicals,  which  play  such  an  important  part 
in  the  industry,  for  to  do  so  would  lead  us  too  far  afield  from  the 
main  topic. 


{24} 


/ 

L 


PART  TWO 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF 
SOLE  LEATHER 


Sorting  Hides  before  Washing  in  Drum  Tumbler 


Soaking  and  Liming  Pits  with  Crane  Conveyor 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  PREPARATORY  PROCESSES 

Since  the  tanning  of  hides  into  heavy  leather  and  the  converting 
of  skins  into  upper  shoe  and  dressing  leathers  are  entirely  separate 
and  distinct, — almost  as  much  so  as  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
and  woolens, — we  shall  follow  first  the  hides  of  cattle  through  the 
sole  leather  tannery,  and  then,  in  Part  Three,  the  manufacture  of  var- 
ious kinds  of  light  leathers  from  the  skins  of  the  smaller  animals. 

The  majority  of  the  hides  used  by  American  sole  leather  tanners  Soaking 
arrive  at  the  tannery  green-salted.  The  first  thing  to  be  done,  after 
the  hides  have  been  opened  out  and  sorted,  is  to  remove  all  traces  of 
salt  and  as  much  dirt  as  possible.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  the 
hides  are  soaked  in  clean  soft  water,  until  they  are  considered  suffi- 
ciently clean.  Where  hides  are  received  dry-salted,  or  simply  flint 
dried,  plain  soaking  will  not  remove  the  salt  or  make  the  hides  pliable 
enough  for  the  subsequent  processes,  unless  they  are  left  in  water  so 
long  that  a  great  deal  of  gelatinous  substance  is  lost.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  hasten  the  process  by  mechanical  action,  and  often  by 
chemicals  as  well.  The  mechanical  method  of  softening  usually  con- 
sists of  kneading  the  hides  in  a  drum  tumbler,  which  is  nothing  more 
than  a  hollow  drum  fitted  with  shelves  like  those  of  a  paddle-wheel. 
As  the  drum  rotates,  the  hides  are  given  a  thorough  beating,  and  this 
process  is  frequently  augmented  by  introducing  acids  or  alkalies  into 
the  water  in  the  drum. 

Plain  soaking  is  usually  done  in  square,  cement-lined  pits,  as  is 
also  the  operation  which  suceeds  it,  namely  that  of  liming.  The 
primary  object  in  placing  the  hides  in  lime  liquor  is  to  loosen  the 
roots  of  the  hair  so  that  it  may  easily  be  removed,  but  the  process  is 
one  of  the  most  important  in  the  tannery,  and  many  experts  claim  that 
leather  is  made  or  ruined  in  the  lime  pit. 

Since  lime  by  itself  does  not  very  rapidly  destroy  the  hair-bulbs  Liming 
it  is  customary  to  add  some  other  depilatory  agent,  such  as  red  arsenic 
or  sulphide  of  sodium.  The  length  of  the  process  varies  but  hides 
are  rarely  left  in  lime  liquor  for  more  than  four  or  five  days.  The 
methods  also  vary  a  great  deal;  some  tanners  do  their  liming  in  a 
single  pit,  others  use  what  is  known  as  the  three-pit  system,  in  which 


$27) 


Different 
Methods 


Other 
Depilatories 


Unhairing 


Vnhairing 
Machine 


Fleshing 


each  of  three  successive  solutions  is  stronger  than  the  last.  One 
essential  thing  is  that  the  pits  must  be  stirred  up  at  frequent  intervals, 
and  this  used  to  be  done  by  the  ardous  process  of  "pulling."  A 
workman  reaches  down  into  the  pit  with  a  long  two-handled  instru- 
ment like  a  fire-tongs,  only  five  times  as  long,  and  pulls  out  the  hides, 
leaving  them  on  the  side  of  the  pit  to  drain.  This  process  has  now 
been  supplanted  in  some  modern  tanneries  by  mechanical  devices  such 
as  paddle-vats  which  keep  the  liquors  in  motion;  in  a  few  tanneries, 
the  hides  are  hung  from  poles  joined  to  a  connecting  rod  opposite 
ends  of  which  are  alternately  raised  and  lowered.  This  contrivance, 
known  as  the  "rocker  pit,"  is  more  frequently  applied  to  the  coloring 
pits. 

During  their  immersion  in  lime  liquor  the  hides  lose  most  of  their 
natural  grease,  and  the  hair  becomes  sufficiently  loose  so  that  it  will 
easily  come  off  in  the  unhairing  machine.  There  are  other  methods  of 
depilation,  such  as  sweating,  which  is  frequently  done  with  sheep  skins, 
the  hair  being  attacked  by  the  putrefaction  which  rapidly  develops  in 
moist  heat.  A  new  method  of  removing  hair  by  a  treatment  with 
enzymes  is  very  efficient,  but  as  yet  too  expensive  to  be  commercially 
practicable. 

The  operation  after  liming,  namely  that  of  unhairing,  was  formerly 
the  first  of  a  series  of  manual  tasks  performed  on  a  convex  wooden 
surface  called  the  beam,  which  still  survives  and  gives  the  name  of 
"beam-house"  to  the  building  in  which  these  operations  are  now  carried 
out  by  machinery.  The  dehairing  instrument  formerly  used  was  a 
blunt  knife  with  a  concave  edge,  with  which  the  hide  was  scraped  down- 
ward over  the  beam,  thus  removing  the  loosened  hair. 

There  are  various  machines  in  use  for  unhairing,  the  two  chief  types 
being  the  serial  table  feed,  and  the  ^^Uet^ed.  The  latter  is  almost 
invariably  used  for  hides,  while  the  former  is  employed  for  light  skins. 
The  hides  are  fed  over  a  roller,  immediately  after  coming  out  of  lime, 
between  a  soft  felt  or  rubber  backing  and  a  cylinder  armed  with  dull 
helical  knives,  which  usually  converge  half  to  the  left  and  half  to  the 
right.  By  this  means  the  hair  is  scraped  off  and  the  hide  slightly 
stretched. 

The  next  thing  is  to  remove  the  flesh  adhering  to  the  inner  side, 
and  this  is  done  in  a  very  similar  manner.  The  old  method  was  to 
use  a  knife  with  a  sharp  convex  blade  and  a  dull  concave  edge,  using 
first  one  and  then  the  other  over  the  beam;  but  all  this  is  now 
accomplished  by  a  machine  which  differs  very  little  from  the  one  used 
to  remove  the  hair.  The  only  real  difference  is  that  the  helical  knives, 
instead  of  being  blunt,  are  exceedingly  sharp.  Both  the  unhairing  and 
fleshing  machines  work  very  much  on  the  principle  of  the  ordinary 
lawn-mowc 


Whereas,  as  we  shall  see  later,  there  remain  several  other  preliminary 
processes  in  the  making  of  upper  leather,  there  only  remain  two  in 
the  making  of  hides  into  sole  leather.  The  first  consists  in  removing 
by  hand  what  few  short  hairs  have  escaped  the  machine,  and  the  second 
is  simply  the  washing  out  of  the  lime  which  still  remains  in  the  hides. 
The  latter  is  usually  done  in  a  drum,  into  which  water  is  continually 
fed  through  a  hollow  axle,  but  is  sometimes  accomplished  by  means  of 
an  acid  bath.  The  acid  method,  however,  is  rarely  used  for  sole 
leather. 

After  they  have  been  cleansed  the  hides  are  ready  for  the  tanning 
liquors,  and  from  now  on  we  must  think  of  the  hair  side  as  the  "grain." 


De-liming 


Unhairing 


29 


I 

I 


Trimming  on  the  Beam 


Working  Cylinder  of  Fleshing  Machine 


CHAPTER  VII 

VEGETABLE  TANNING  OF  SOLE  LEATHER 

When  all  the  lime  has  been  removed  from  the  hides  they  have  lost 
their  hard  gristly  quality,  and  are  in  a  more  or  less  soft,  plumped-out 
condition,  which  is  ideally  receptive  to  the  tanning  liquors.  These 
are  applied  in  one  of  two  methods,  known  as  the  pit  and  the  drum 
tannage. 

In  pit  tanning,  the  hides  are  slowly  passed  through  three  series  of  Pit  Tanning 
pits  containing  gradually  strengthened  tanning  solutions.  The  first 
series  are  known  as  "suspenders,"  the  second  as  "handlers,"  and  the 
third  as  "layers"  or  "layaways."  The  object  of  this  lengthy  process 
is  to  secure  an  even  tannage;  and  to  this  end  the  strength  of  the  liquor 
is  very  carefully  graduated.  If  strong  extracts  were  used  in  the  first 
pits  the  result  would  be  a  rapid  tanning  of  the  outer  surfaces  without 
permitting  the  tannin  to  penetrate  within  the  hide.  Such  leather  would 
quickly  decay,  and  moreover  its  grain  would  be  wrinkled  and  loose. 

The  first  series  of  pits  may  consist  of  any  number  from  six  upwards,   "Suspenders' 
according  to  the  size  of  the  tannery.     The  hides  are  suspended,  as  we 
might  expect,  from   wooden  poles,   and  are  frequently   "rocked"  by 
mechanical  motion.     Inasmuch  as  the  leather  gets  its  first  coloring  in 
this  process,  these  pits  are  often  referred  to  as  "coloring  pits." 

Hides  are  sometimes  "rounded"  before  being  placed  in  the  sus- 
penders, but  more  frequently,  unless  the  bellies  and  heads  are  to  be 
chromed,  this  operation  is  performed  between  the  suspenders  and 
"handlers."  "Rounding"  consists  of  cutting  the  hide  into  several  parts. 
The  chief  section  of  the  hide  is  the  back  of  the  animal  from  the  neck 
to  the  tail.  This  is  known  as  a  "back."  Sometimes  this  main  section 
is  cut  in  two  parts,  the  "shoulder"  and  the  "butt,"  the  line  being  drawn 
across  the  back  just  behind  the  fore-legs.  Frequently,  also,  the  "back" 
is  cut  down  the  spine  forming  two  "sides"  instead  of  a  "butt"  and 
"shoulder."  The  "head,"  or  "cheeks,"  are  cut  off  at  the  neck,  and 
each  hide  yields  two  strips  of  inferior  leather  known  as  "bellies,"  the 
remaining  section  being  referred  to  as  a  "bend."  The  reason  for  sepa- 
rating the  hide  into  these  various  portions  is  that  different  processes 
are  frequently  used  in  order  to  make  out  of  them  different  kinds  of  sole 
leather  or  heel  stock.  / 


'Rounding" 


BUTT 
BEND 


BELLY 


DOUBLE 
SHOULDER 


"Rounded"  Hide,  two  Methods 


The  second  series  of  pits,  known  as  the  "handlers,"  contains  a 
stronger  tanning  solution  than  the  first.  Usually  the  liquor  from  the 
weakest  "handler"  is  pumped  into  the  last  or  strongest  "suspender"  "Handlers' 
pit.  Similarly,  the  strongest  "handler"  derives  its  liquor  from  the 
weakest  "layer."  There  are  usually  six  or  eight  "handlers,"  and  the 
liquors  are  frequently  strengthened  by  extracts  or  gambier.  In  these 
pits,  as  in  the  succeeding  "layaways,"  the  hides  are  laid  flat  instead 
of  being  hung  from  poles.  The  first  handler  liquor  usually  reads 
about  25°  on  the  barkometer  (an  instrument  used  to  indicate  the 
strength  of  tanning  solutions),  and  this  is  gradually  increased,  until  the 
final  process  is  reached. 

In  the  "layers,"  of  which  there  are  usually  five,  strong  extracts  are  "Layers" 
used,  which  toughen  the  leather,  the  barkometer  often  registering  as 
high  as  100°.  In  order  to  give  the  leather  what  the  trade  calls  "bloom" 
it  is  customary  at  this  stage  to  add  valonia,  or  some  other  substance 
containing  ellagic  acid.  The  length  of  time  consumed  in  the  pits 
varies  with  the  kind  of  leather  to  be  produced,  and  also  with  the  ideas 
of  different  tanners.  The  general  tendency  is  to  hasten  the  process  as 
much  as  possible  by  the  use  of  stronger  extracts,  which  often  has  a 
deleterious  effect  upon  the  product.  Good  vegetable-tanned  sole  leather 
remains  in  the  pits  for  several  months — sometimes  for  almost  a  year. 

There  is,  however,  one  method  of  hastening  the  process,  by  the  intrd 
duction  of  mechanical  action.     This  system,  known  as  drum  tanningT  Drum 
is  successfully  used  by  many  French  and  some  American  sole  leather]   Tanning 
tanners.     Drums  with   revolving  paddle   wheels  keep   the  hides   anc 
liquors  in  motion,  thereby  so  accelerating  the  process  of  impregnation 
that,  by  gradually  strengthening  the  liquors  with  extracts,  hides  can 
be  tanned  in  a  few  days.    The  leather  produced  in  this  way,  however 
is  not  generally  considered  as  durable  as  that  tanned  more  slowly  in 
the  pits,  and  also  is  very  likely  to  have  a  loose  grain. 

The  oldest  practice  among  sole  leather  tanners  is  to  allow  the  hides 
to  drain  after  being  removed  from  each  pit,  but  the  desire  for  speedy    yarious 
production  has  brought  about  the  common  usage  of  mechanical  con-   Speeding 
trivances,  such  as  reels  or  cranes,  by  means  of  which  the  hides  are   Methods 
transferred  from  one  pit  to  another.     Another  way  of  shortening  the 
process  is  to  treat  the  hides  with  acid  before  putting  them  into  the 
suspenders,  the  object  being  to  make  them  more  susceptible.     Solubil- 
ized  oils  are  also  used  to  add  greater  water-proof  quality  and  to  permit 
of  the  use  of  stronger  extracts. 

The  most  commonly  used  vegetable  materials  for  tanning  sole  leather") 
in  this  country  are:  oak,  quebracho,  hemlock,  valonia  and  gambier. / 


{35 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


"Seasoning' 


'Bleaching" 


Drying 

and 

Oiling 


"Setting- 
Out" 


FINISHING  SOLE  LEATHER 

Strictly  speaking,  the  conversion  of  hides  into  sole  leather  has  been 
completed  in  the  "layaways."  However,  since  sole  leather  is  sold, 
not  by  superficial  measurement,  but  by  weight,  and  since  color  and 
finish  are  important  considerations  affecting  the  price  it  commands, 
there  remain  a  considerable  number  of  operations  before  the  product 
is  ready  for  the  market. 

The  first  of  these  finishing  processes  usually  consists  of  what  the 
tanner  mysteriously  calls  "seasoning."  As  in  any  other  industry,  this 
term  is  used  to  cover  a  large  field.  Proper  seasoning  consists  in  fixing 
l]iej^mnmjn_jh^^  in  most 

caseTTnTs  term'means  drumming  the^teain^rinsTrieiig^hot  extracts 
mixed  with  sulphonated  animal  oils.  The  result  is  not  only  a  fixing, 
but  a  more  complete  saturation,  lending  additional  weight  and  sub- 
stance to  the  product.  This  process  is  often  abused, — although  not 
nearly  so  much  now  as  formerly, — by  the  use  of  hygroscopic  chemicals, 
such  as  barium  salts,  which  swell  the  leather  but  are  washed  out  as 
soon  as  it  is  exposed  to  water. 

The  use  of  strong  extracts  not  only  saturates  the  leather,  but  gives 
it  a  dask. brown  color,  which  for  some  reason  is  not  popular  with  the 
trade.  Accordingly,  the  next  operation  is  a  bleaching  process,  which 
besides  lightening  the  color,  also  serves  to  remove  superfluous  season- 
ing. If  bleaching  is  carried  too  far  it  easily  results  in  injury  to  the 
fibres. 

As  a  rule  the  leather  is  now  allowed  to  dry  for  several  days,  being 
hung  for  this  purpose  over  wooden  bars  and  placed  in  racks  in  the 
drying  loft.  After  a  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  it  is  taken  down  and 
oiled^c-nthe  grain  side  with  a  swob,  cod-oil  being  the  most  commonly 
used.  Alter  oiling,  depending  upon  how  thoroughly  it  has  been  dried, 
the  leather  may  either  be  hung  in  the  loft  once  more,  or  passed  on  at 
once  to  the  setting-out  machine. 

When  the  leather  is  to  be  set-out,  or  pinned,  as  the  old  manual 
operation  was  called,  it  still  contains  a  great  deal  of  moisture;  at  this 
stage  it  is  usually  in  what  the  tanner  calls  a  "sammed"  condition, 
meaning  that  if  the  piece  is  doubled  over  it  will  just  barely  exude 


(36 


Bleaching 


Oiling 


Setting  Out 


Rolling 


Brushing 


'Rolling 


'Sizing" 


moisture  at  the  point  where  it  is  bent.  It  is  obvious  that  pressure 
exerted  upon  leather  in  this  condition  will  result  in  the  squeezing  out 
of  the  scum  formed  by  surplus  moisture  and  grease.  This  is  precisely 
what  the  setting-out  machine  accomplishes,  by  means  of  two  pairs  of 
metal  rollers.  The  scud  is  then  scraped  off,  and  after  a  little  while 
the  leather  is  ready  for  its  first  rolling. 

In  some  tanneries  the  butt-bends  are  brought  through  to  this  point 
before  they  are  cut  down  the  center  to  form  two  sides.  In  others, 
the  sides  are  separated  at  the  time  of  rounding,  between  the  "sus- 
penders" and  "handlers."  In  any  case  the  next  development  is  the 
same,  namely  that  of  rolling.  Formerly  this  was  done  by  pulling  a 
heavily  weighted  roller  over  the  leather,  much  as  a  man  rolls  a  tennis- 
court,  but  machines  are  now  everywhere  in  use. 

After  the  first  rolling,  the  leather  is  again  allowed  to  dry,  this  time 
until  it  contains  very  little  moisture.  It  is  then  "sized"  with  a  weak 
coloring  matter,  and  rolled  for  the  second  time.  After  this  some  tan- 
ners use  a  machine  called  the  striking-out  machine,  which,  by  exerting 
extreme  pressure  on  a  small  part  of  the  leather,  smooths  out  the  grain, 
particular  care  being  taken  to  eliminate  the  wrinkles  about  the  neck. 

The  grain  is  then  usually  polished,  either  by  hand,  or  by  a  machine  "Striking- 
buffer,  after  which  it  is  inspected  and  ready  for  the  purchaser.  The] 
finishing  processes  are  not  always  precisely  the  same  for  the  various 
parts  of  the  hide,  depending  on  what  is  to  be  made  of  them.  Thus, 
while  the  bends  of  a  given  lot  are  made  into  high-grade  sole-leather, 
the  bellies  might  be  chromed  and  finisheo!_as  light  chrome  sole,  while 
the  heads  were  finished  into  heel  stock./  The  chrome  process  will  be\ 
/taken  up  at  greater  length  in  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  upper] 
(leather.  Chrome  sole-leather  is  extensively  used  for  tennis  and  water- 
proof shoes.  The  finishing  process  for  chrome  sole  differs  chiefly  in 
two  particulars:  first,  the  leather  is  stretched  to  regain  some  of  the 
surface  lost  by  treatment  with  astringents;  and  second,  a  fluffy  nap  is 
frequently  raised  on  the  flesh  side  by  brushing  up  the  fibres. 


CHAPTER  IX 


Shaved 
Sumached 
and  Stuffed 


OTHER  HEAVY  LEATHERS 

There  are  several  so-called  heavy  leathers,  which  are  tanned  in  much 
the  same  way  as  sole  leather,  but  finished  in  quite  a  different  manner. 
Of  a  large  class,  known  as  industrial  leathers,  we  shall  consider  only 
one,  namely  that  used  for  the  transmission  of  power. 

Belting  The  manufacture  of  belting  proceeds  along  the  same  lines  as  that  of 

sole-leather  as  far  as  the  finishing  process.  After  the  tanning  proper 
is  completed,  belting  is  given  a  treatment,  designed  to  yield  tensile 
strength  rather  than  weight.  As  a  rule  only  the  butts  are  used  for 
this  purpose,  the  shoulders  not  being  of  sufficient  strength. 

When  taken  out  of  tan  the  butts  are  first  of  all  shaved  in  order  to 
make  them  of  one  thickness  throughout.  (The  shaving  process  is  one 
with  which  we  shall  become  more  familiar  in  a  subsequent  chapter.) 
They  are  then  washed  and  drummed  in  a  strong  sumach  liquor,  instead 
of  being  seasoned  and  bleached.  After  this  they  are  struck-out  to 
smooth  the  grain,  and  are  ready  for  "stuffing." 

In  order  to  make  it  pliable  as  well  as  strong  the  leather  is  now  im- 
pregnated with  cod-oil  and  tallow.  Formerly  this  was  done  by  means 
of  a  hand  swob,  but  the  manual  operation  has  been  replaced  in  modern 
tanneries  by  a  machine  called  the  stuffing  drum.  Through  the  intro- 
duction of  steam  or  hot  air  into  the  drum,  it  has  become  possible  to 
use  heavier  greases  than  tallow. 

After  this  operation,  the  surplus  grease  is  removed  by  scudding, 
similar  to  the  setting-out  of  sole-leather,  and  the  leather  is  then  dried, 
rolled,  and  dried  once  more,  after  which  it  is  cut  up  into  the  desired 
widths  of  belting. 

During  recent  years  a  large  quantity  of  belting  has  been  made  by 
a  different  process  which  is  cheaper,  and  yet  is  claimed  to  produce  an 
equally  strong  product.  This  method  consists  in  pasting  together  with 
collodion  or  some  similar  adhesive,  a  number  of  flesh  splits  of  hides. 
Any  number  of  splits  may  be  used,  and  the  belting  produced  in  this 
way  is  fast  gaining  favor  with  manufacturers.  Chromed  belting  has 
the  advantage  over  vegetable-tanned  material  that  it  is  not  so  suscept- 
ible to  water  or  steam,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  more  likely 
to  stretch. 

Harness  The  tanning   and   currying   of  harness   and   saddlery   leathers   is   a 

Leather  separate  trade  in  itself,  but  does  not  vary  enough  from  the  manufacture 

of  sole  and  belting  leathers  to  justify  analysis  here.  Pig-skin  finds  its 
chief  use  in  this  field. 


Finishing 


Laminated 
and  Chrome 
Belting 


PART  THREE 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  UPPER-SHOE 
AND  DRESSING  LEATHER 


Sorting  Skins 


Paddle  Vats 


i 


CHAPTER  X 


CALF  SKINS  FOR  UPPER  SHOE  LEATHER 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  lighter  leathers,  the  preparatory  processes 
are  in  many  ways  similar  to  those  employed  in  making  sole  leather. 
There  are,  however,  many  very  important  differences  arising  chiefly 
from  two  causes;  first,  the  lighter  substance  of  the  raw  materials,  and 
second,  the  desire  for  softness  and  pliability.  Upper  shoe  leather,  which 
we  shall  consider  first,  is  made  from  calf  skins,  goat  skins,  split  hides 
(side  leather),  horse  hides,  and  sheep  skins.  There  are  other  less  com- 
monly used  materials  such  as  kangaroo.  While  some  upper  leather  is 
vegetable  tanned,  fully  90%  is  produced  by  the  chrome  process. 

In  preparing  calf  skins  for  tanning,  a  great  deal  depends  upon  the   Sorting 
grade  of  the  skins  and  the  kind  of  leather  to  be  produced.    Accordingly 
the  skins  are  carefully  sorted  into  uniform  lots. 

In  the  first  processes,  there  is  very  little  difference  from  the  proce- 
dure we  have  just  followed  in  preparing  hides.  The  skins  are  first 
of  all  soaked  for  two  or  three  days  to  remove  all  traces  of  salt  or 
pickle.  Then,  instead  of  going  at  once  into  lime,  they  are  usually 
fleshed;  following  this,  they  are  laid — not  hung  as  sole  leather  some- 
times is — in  the  lime-pits,  until  the  hair  is  sufficiently  loose  to  be  re- 
moved by  the  unhairing  machine.  The  usual  time  is  from  six  to  ten 
days.  As  soon  as  the  skins  have  been  unhaired,  they  are  washed  in  a 
drum  tumbler,  and  again  fleshed,  this  time  more  closely. 

Some  of  the  heavier  grades  of  calf  skins  are  "cheeked"  before  the 
second  fleshing.  This  is  a  machine  operation  by  which  the  thickest 
portion  of  the  skin  is  levelled,  and  is  performed  so  that  all  the  leather 
may  be  of  as  even  a  thickness  as  possible.  After  the  second  fleshing, 
the  skins  are  worked  by  hand  over  the  beam  to  remove  any  short  hairs 
or  unevenness.  When  this  is  done,  it  is  the  custom  in  many  tanneries 
to  weigh  and  number  the  skins,  which  look  at  this  stage  very  much 
like  thin  sheets  of  wet  rubber. 

Just  as  in  the  tanning  of  hides  for  heavy  leather,  it  is  necessary  at 
this  point  to  work  out  the  remaining  lime  from  the  skins,  but  in  addi- 
tion, it  is  essential  to  render  the  material  soft  and  supple.  For  this 
purpose  the  skins  are  now  subjected  to  intense  bacterial  action,  by 
placing  them  in  a  solution  of  animal  dung.  Where  calf  skins  are  to 


Soaking 

Liming 

Unhairing 

and 

Fleshing 


"Bating" 


be  finished  into  bag-leather,  hen  or  pigeon  dung  is  used,  but  where 
great  pliability  is  desired,  as  for  boot  upper  leather,  a  stronger  agent 
such  as  dog  manure  is  usually  employed.  The  name  given  to  this 
treatment  is  "bating,"  and  of  recent  years  its  disagreeableness  has 
been  considerably  lessened  by  the  use  of  artificial  puers  such  as 
"Oropon."  At  best,  however,  the  process  is  far  from  pleasant,  even 
though  one  no  longer  sees  the  workmen  test  the  condition  of  the  skins 
by  biting  them,  as  in  former  days. 

In  order  to  remove  the  puer  from  the  skins  before  putting  them 
into  the  tanning  solution,  they  are  either  scudded  or  washed  in  a  drum 
tumbler.  Some  tanners  use  a  "drench"  of  bran.  "Scudding"  consists 
in  pressing  and  scraping  out  the  scum  and  completes  the  preparation 
of  calf  skins  for  the  chrome  liquor. 

Chrome  "tanning,"  which  is  really  not  a  tannage,  but  a  tawing 
process,  is  effected  in  one  of  two  ways,  known  as  the  one-bath  and  two- 
bath  methods.  Both  are  usually  preceded  by  an  immersion  of  the 
skins  in  alum  or  sulphuric  solution — pickle,  as  the  tanner  calls  it, — 
which  renders  them  more  susceptible  to  the  effects  of  chrome  salts. 

In  the  one-bath  method  the  skins  are  soaked  in  a  liquor  containing 
basic  chromium  sulphate  or  chloride,  obtained  by  a  mixture  of  chrome 
alum  and  common  soda  or  bichromate  of  potash,  or  by  reducing 
chromic  acid  with  glucose.  The  one-bath  system  usually  employs  a 
drum  tumbler  in  which  the  solution  is  gradually  strengthened. 

The  two-bath  process  requires  more  care,  since  a  slight  error  in 
mixing  the  ingredients  would  entirely  alter  the  character  of  the  leather. 
In  the  first  bath,  the  skins  are  placed  in  a  covered  paddle-vat,  or  in  a 
drum-tumbler,  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  chromic  acid.  The  latter 
is  obtained  from  bichromate  of  potash  and  muriatic  acid.  This  solu- 
tion turns  the  skins  to  a  light  orange  color  and  leaves  them  in  a  state 
which  is  poisonous  to  the  touch.  Some  tanners  "strike-out"  the  leather 
between  the  two  baths,  in  order  to  remove  all  wrinkles.  The  object 
of  the  second  bath  is  to  reduce  the  acid  to  an  inert  oxide,  and  this  is 
usually  accomplished  in  a  drum-tumbler  containing  a  solution  of 
hypo-sulphite  of  soda  and  muriatic  acid.  This  process  produces  a 
sulphurous  acid  and  turns  the  leather  to  a  dark  dirty  brown.  Then,  as 
the  chemical  action  continues,  the  sulphur  works  free,  leaving  the  skins 
a  pale  bluish  color,  which  can  be  made  completely  white  by  adding 
more  soda. 

The  chrome  process  finds  its  most  universal  application  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  making  of  calf,  side,  and  kid  upper  leather.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  it  is  used  as  well  in  the  manufacture  of  sole 
and  belting  and  also  of  recent  years  in  making  glove  and  fancy  leathers. 


Scudding 


Chrome 
Process 


One-Bath 
Method 


Two-Bath 
Method 


545 


Shaving  Machine 


A  Row  of  Fat-Liquoring  Drums 


As  soon  as  the  chromed  skins  are  taken  from  the  last  drum-tumbler, 
they  are  hung  on  wooden  horses  to  drain.  They  are  then  "set  out"  by  Setting-out 
a  machine  similar  to  that  used  for  sole  leather,  only  lighter.  When 
the  surplus  moisture  has  thus  been  removed,  it  is  usual  to  shave  the 
skins  on  the  flesh  side,  in  order  to  make  them  of  even  thickness 
throughout. 

Before  adequate  machinery  was  invented,  this  operation  was  done 
by  hand  and  caused  a  large  amount  of  wastage.  The  modern  shaving  Shaving 
machine  is  a  triumph  of  mechanical  precision,  and  deserves  detailed 
study,  which  unfortunately  for  want  of  space,  we  cannot  devote  to  it 
here.  The  principle  is  once  more  that  of  the  lawn-mower — a  rapidly 
revolving  cylinder  armed  with  sharp  helical  knives — the  adjustment 
of  which  is  a  matter  of  great  delicacy. 

After  a  satisfactory  flesh  surface  has  been  obtained,  the  skins  are 
sorted  into  various  lots,  to  be  colored  in  different  shades.  This  sorting  Sorting 
constitutes  a  very  important  factor  in  the  results  gained  by  the  tanner, 
and  the  man  to  whom  this  task  is  delegated  must  be  highly  trained. 
Calf  skins  may  be  finished  in  a  great  number  of  different  ways,  and  it 
is  at  this  point,  after  shaving,  that  the  manufacturer  must  finally  deter- 
mine which  one  of  the  many  finishes  is  to  be  applied  to  each  lot  of 
skins. 

The  next  process  is  usually  referred  to  as  "fat-liquoring,"  and  com- 
prises three  distinct  features, — coloring,  filling  and  oiling.  All  three 
of  these  processes  are  sometimes  combined  into  one,  but  more  often 
they  are  effected  in  different  drums.  Dyeing  is  done  in  many  ways, 
in  drums,  vats  and  even  by  dipping.  The  dye-stuffs  used  vary  a  great 
deal  and  constitute  a  study  in  themselves.  Sumach  or  gambier  are  fre- 
quently used  in  this  process  both  as  coloring  agents  and  to  give  a 
supplementary  vegetable  tannage.  Fat-liquoring  proper  consists  of 
filling  the  leather  with  soaps,  oils,  starch,  china  clay,  tallow,  egg  yolk, 
or  a  great  number  of  other  materials.  The  object  is  to  strengthen  the 
fibres  and  render  the  leather  soft  and  pliable,  at  the  same  time  giving 
it  the  desired  color.  The  process  is  usually  carried  out  at  high  temper- 
ature in  the  drum  tumbler  and  changes  the  leather  from  its  bluish  tint 
to  black  or  colors. 

The  skins  are  now  hung  to  dry,  after  which  they  are  "set-out"  to 
remove  the  superfluous  matter.  An  operation  known  as  "shanking" 
smoothes  out  the  wrinkles  in  the  shanks,  and  the  leather  is  then  al- 
lowed to  dry  until  it  reaches  a  "sammed"  condition,  after  which  it  is 
laid  in  damp  sawdust  until  it  is  soft  enough  to  be  "staked." 

"Staking"  is   an   operation  somewhat  similar  to  "setting-out."     Its    Staking 
object  is  to  smooth  the  surfaces,  remove  foreign  matter,  and  make  the 
leather  supple, — in  fact,  this  one  treatment  changes  the  "crusty"  skins 


Coloring 
"Fat- 
Liquoring9 


{47) 


into  what  looks  to  the  layman  like  finished  leather.  There  are  several 
types  of  staking  machines:  in  some  the  leather  is  pulled  over  a  blunt 
edge  by  a  mechanical  contrivance,  which  reminds  the  uninitiated 
observer  of  the  jaws  of  a  crocodile,  which  reach  out  and  grasp  the 
material  and  then  let  it  slip  out  between  them;  in  another  type  of 
machine  the  skins  are  laid  on  an  inclined  surface  and  are  curried  by 
a  blunt  knife  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  wooden  arm,  the  action  of  which  is 
reminiscent  of  a  grasshopper's  hind  leg.  (See  fig.) 

Straining  Each  skin  is  now  tacked  on  a  wooden  board  in  such  a  way  as  to 

stretch  it  in  all  directions,  so  that  some  of  the  shrinkage  caused  by 
the  chrome  process  is  regained.  Inasmuch  as  upper  leather  is  sold 
by  superficial  measurement,  and  not  by  weight,  as  in  the  case  of  sole 
leather,  this  operation  known  as  "straining"  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. When  the  skins  have  been  sufficiently  dried,  they  are  removed 
from  the  board  and  usually  given  a  second  "staking,"  which,  however, 
is  not  necessary  with  the  lighter  skins.  Following  this,  the  rough 
edges  are  trimmed  off  by  hand  and  the  grain  is  usually  brushed. 

Seasoning  The  next  process,  known  as  seasoning,  is  not  like  the  seasoning  of 

sole  leather,  although  it  does  to  a  certain  extent  serve  the  same  pur- 
poses. The  leather  is  fed  by  a  belt  conveyor  between  several 
rollers,  which  act  in  a  similar  manner  to  those  on  a  printing  press, 
impregnating  the  surface  with  a  mixture  of  wax,  shellac,  and  paint. 
The  objects  to  be  obtained  are  color,  finish,  and  smoothness.  Many 
tanners  prefer  to  apply  their  seasoning  by  hand,  and  the  mixture  used 
varies  a  great  deal  with  the  ultimate  finish  to  be  produced.  As  soon 
as  the  last  coat  is  dry,  the  leather  is  ready  for  its  final  treatment,  which 
consists  of  being  given  any  one  of  a  number  of  finishes. 

Finishes  Calf-skin  is  finished  in  three  general  ways:  first,  the  smooth  grain 

finish, — glace,  gun-metal,  etc.;  second,  boarded  grain  finish, — box  and 
willow;  and  third,  flesh  finish, — ooze  and  suede.  There  are  many 
variations  for  all  three  methods,  and  all  are  used  both  for  colors  and 
blacks. 

1.  Smooth  Glazing  consists  of  giving  the  leather  a  permanent  polish  by  rubbing 

gram          fa  at  high  pressure  with   a   glass   sleeker.     The   operation   resembles 

staking   with    a   grasshopper   type   of   machine, — the   chief   difference 

a.  Glazing    being  that  the  working  tool,  instead  of  a  knife,  is  a  small  fixed  cylin- 

der of  glass.  Some  manufacturers  glaze  more  than  once,  depending 
upon  the  height  of  polish  desired. 

Where  a  duller  surface  is  to  be  obtained,  glazing  is  supplanted  by 
"Gun-metal"   "plating,"  which  consists  of  pressing  the  leather  in  a  contrivance  much 

b.  Plating     like  that  in  which  an  up-to-date  tailor  presses  his  customers'  trousers. 

The  resulting  finish  is  smooth  but  not  very  shiny,  and  is  usually  called 
"gun-metal." 


Slocum  Staking  Machine 


Baker  Staking  Machine  (Grasshopper  type) 


Straining 


Seasoning  and  Drying 


c.  "Mat- 
finish" 


A  so-called  "mat  finish"  is  obtained  by  dressing  the  grain  with  olive 
oil,  thereby  giving  it  a  certain  "draggy"  quality  desirable  for  boot 
tops.  Such  leather  has  the  advantage  of  superior  softness  and  comfort. 

In  some  types  of  shoes,  notably  in  English  brogans,  the  public  has 
become  accustomed  to  a  leather  which  shows  a  distinct  grain  marking. 
This  is  achieved  by  pressure  on  the  grain  surface  with  a  cork  board 
("boarding"),  which  brings  out  the  natural  depressions  in  the  skin 
left  by  the  roots  of  the  hair.  Boarding  is  usually  done  by  hand,  with 
a  tool  which  fits  on  the  workman's  fore-arm.  When  finished  black  such 
leather  is  known  as  "Box"  calf,  being  named  after  the  originator  of 
the  process.  The  same  finish  in  colors  is  usually  referred  to  as  "Wil- 
low" calf. 

The  flesh  side  of  calf-skin  lends  itself  readily  to  being  raised  in  a 
short  nap.  This  is  accomplished  by  severe  brushing,  which  produces 
a  soft  velvety  surface.  Such  finishes,  known  as  suede  or  ooze,  are 
exceedingly  popular  for  certain  types  of  ladies'  shoes. 

Where  a  piece  of  leather  reaches  the  finishing  stage  with  an  im- 
perfect grain,  it  is  often,  if  not  flesh-finished,  submitted  to  an  opera- 
tion called  "snuffing."  The  latter  consists  in  smoothing  down  the  4.  Snuffing 
grain  on  a  wheel  armed  with  carborundum  cloth,  or  similar  abrasive, 
by  means  of  which  a  very  satisfactory  surface  can  be  obtained,  although 
it  will,  of  course,  lack  the  natural  grain  markings.  Such  "snuffed" 
leather  is  of  secondary  grade  and  is  sold  as  corrected-grain  calf,  under 
various  mysterious  trade  names. 


2.  "Boarded" 
Grain 


'Box"  and 
'Willow" 


3.  Flesh 
Finish 


(51) 


Mechanical  Foot  Counter 


r 


Sorting  and  Making  Bundles 


CHAPTER  XI 
SIDE  AND  PATENT  LEATHER 

If  the  truth  were  known,  a  great  many  of  us,  who  fondly  cherish  the 
belief  that  our  pedal  extremities  are  clothed  in  calf-skin  uppers,  would 
be  sadly  disillusioned;  for  much  of  the  leather  known  to  the  public 
as  "calf"  comes  in  reality  from  an  animal  which  has  long  forgotten  its 
calf-hood.  Practically  every  known  finish  of  calf-skin  has  been  imi- 
tated more  or  less  successfully  in  "side  leather,"  and  in  many  cases 
it  would  tax  the  eye  of  an  expert  to  detect  the  difference.  It  is  dis- 
tinctly to  the  credit  of  the  shoe  and  leather  trades  in  this  country  that 
one  may  fairly  state  that  the  public  is  really  only  deceived  where  it 
deceives  itself. 

What  then  is  this  mysterious  "side-leather?"  Nothing  more  than 
the  hides  of  full-grown  cattle,  split  into  several  thicknesses.  The 
procedure  of  making  this  kind  of  leather  is  so  similar  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  calf,  which  we  have  just  discussed,  that  for  our  purposes  it 
is  necessary  to  concern  ourselves  only  with  a  few  salient  differences. 

To  begin  with,  the  hides  are  sorted  in  the  hide-cellar  into  various 
weights   and   qualities.     They   are   then   trimmed   around  the  heads,    _     . 
switches,  and  shanks,  and  split  down  the  spine  into  two  sections,  or    <J^, 
"sides."     It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  two  sides  from  the 
same  hide  would  go  into  the  same  sort,  for  one  side  might  be  branded 
or  scored  while  the  other  was  not.     Soaking  and  liming  then  follow, 
some  tanners  giving  the  sides   a   fleshing  before  they  go   into   lime. 
More  frequently  both  fleshing  and  unhairing  take  place  after  the  lime 
bath. 

In  most  tanneries  the  hides  are  scudded  when  they  come  out  of  lime 
and  then  split,  which  has  the  advantage  of  permitting  an  entirely  differ- 
ent treatment  for  the  grain  and  flesh  splits.  In  some  cases,  however,  Splitting 
instead  of  "splitting  out  of  lime,"  the  hides  are  "split  out  of  tan"  at 
a  later  stage  of  the  process.  The  splitting  machine  operates  in  a 
manner  fascinating  to  observe;  the  sides  are  fed  in,  butt  first,  over  a 
series  of  rollers  until  they  meet  an  exceedingly  sharp  and  rapidly 
revolving  band-knife,  which  slices  through  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
top,  or  grain  split  is  of  even  thickness  throughout.  The  exact  thickness 


$53} 


Feed  End  of  Splitting  Machine 


mm 


Delivery  End  showing  two  Splits 


Patent 
Leather 


can  be  regulated,  and  all   unevennesses  in  the  hide  are  compensated   Splitting 
for  by  a  multisection  brass  roller.     Some  sides  are  split  only  once,    Machine 
but  frequently,  with  large  heavy  hides  in  particular,  the  lower  section 
is  made  into  several  flesh  splits. 

The  regular  procedure  of  bating,  drenching,  and  scudding  is  now 
resumed  and  the  split  sides  are  chromed,  colored  and  fat-liquored  in 
much  the  same  way  as  calf-skins.  Samming,  damping  in  sawdust, 
staking,  straining,  and  re-staking  follow  in  due  course  until  the  finish- 
ing operations  are  reached. 

Side  leather  may  now  be  finished  in  any  one  of  the  ways  in  which  Finishing 
we  have  seen  calf-skins  treated.  Its  texture  is,  of  course,  not  as  fine, 
nor  does  it  have  the  grain  marking  of  calf  leather,  for  which  reason 
it  is  more  frequently  snuffed  and  given  a  gun-metal  finish.  It  is  how- 
ever, perfectly  feasible  to  produce  in  side  leather  a  grain  which  only 
an  expert  would  detect  as  artificial.  This  is  done  by  various  methods 
of  embossing  and  printing. 

One  very  important  finish  applied  to  side  leather  is  the  japanning 
process,  which  produces  so-called  patent-leather.  This  treatment  varies 
considerably  from  all  other  finishes,  in  that  the  sides  are  de-greased  in 
benzine  solution  after  being  fat-liquored.  This  is  necessary  in  order 
that  the  succeeding  treatment  may  take  proper  effect.  The  sides,  which 
have  been  colored  a  dark  purple,  are  then  stretched  on  wooden  frames 
by  means  of  tacks  along  the  back,  and  clips  and  strings  along  the 
shanks  and  belly.  The  leather  is  left  on  these  frames  until  the  entire 
japanning  treatment  has  been  completed. 

The  process  itself  consists  of  three  coats,  after  the  application  of 
each  one  of  which  the  frames  are  placed  on  racks  in  huge  ovens  and 
baked.  Some  German  manufacturers  japan  the  flesh  side,  but  in  this 
country  all  three  coats  are  applied  on  the  grain.  The  first  consists 
of  a  priming  solution  containing  amyl  acetate  and  banana  oil,  the 
second  contains  more  black  and  a  certain  amount  of  varnish,  and  the 
last  is  given  almost  entirely  to  add  lustre.  Usually,  where  possible, 
the  frames  are  then  placed  in  the  sun.  The  result  of  this  treatment 
is  no  doubt  familiar  to  the  reader  in  the  smooth,  glossy,  black  patent- 
leather  used  for  dress  shoes  and  bags. 

It  is  well  to  note  here  that,  while  the  majority  of  our  patent  leather 
is  made  from  japanned  sides  not  all  of  it  is  derived  from  the  hides  of 
cattle.  Horse-hides,  and  particularly  Russian  colt-skins,  are  the  ma- 
terial par  excellence  for  this  purpose,  and  German  patent  leather  is 
made  to  a  large  extent  from  goat-skins. 


Three 
Coats 
Baked 


55 


Setting  out  Side  Leather 


Straining  Side  Leather 


"Toggling"  before  Japanning 


Varnishing  Room,  Showing  Ovens 


CHAPTER  XII 
GOAT-SKINS  AND  "Km"  UPPER  LEATHER 

The  famous  glace  kid  upper  leather,  and  dull  finished  kid  are  two 
of  the  most  popular  leathers  used  for  high-grade  footwear.  Both 
are  made  from  the  skins  of  goats,  which  are  imported  from  various 
parts  of  the  world.  The  small  Indian  goat  has  a  particularly  fine- 
grained hard  pelt,  and  these  skins,  known  as  Patnas  and  Behars,  are 
generally  considered  the  most  desirable.  Goat-skins  from  China,  Tur- 
key, Europe  and  Mexico  are  usually  somewhat  larger  and  softer,  and 
are,  therefore,  treated  in  a  slightly  different  manner. 

Goat-skins  are  shipped  green-salted,  or  dry,  or  pickled  in  barrels. 
The  latter  is  the  most  desirable  method  of  preservation  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  tanner,  but,  because  of  the  expense,  is  usually  restricted 
to  kid-skins  to  be  used  for  gloves.  Some  India  skins  are  roughly 
tanned  with  babool  by  the  natives,  and  are  known  as  India-tanned 
goat-skins;  inasmuch  as  this  preliminary  tannage  has  to  be  off-set  to 
a  certain  extent,  these  skins  are  not  very  popular,  except  with  certain 
manufacturers  who  use  the  babool  tannage  as  a  basis  for  their  subse- 
quent processes. 

The  first  step  in  the  tannery  is  the  assorting  of  bales  into  grades 
and  weights,  after  which,  as  the  bales  are  opened,  the  skins  are  sorted 
carefully  and  put  into  different  lots,  the  aim  being  to  have  the  skins 
in  each  lot  as  uniform  as  to  kind,  size,  and  weight,  as  possible.  The 
shanks  and  switches  are  then  trimmed,  and  the  skins  are  weighed  and 
numbered. 

The  soaking  process  varies  with  the  manner  in  which  the  skins  have 
been  preserved,  and  is  sometimes  augmented  by  mechanical  action. 
Very  frequently  a  drum-tumbler  is  used  to  open  the  pores  and  make 
the  skins  susceptible  to  the  lime.  Most  kid  tanners  use  two  successively 
stronger  lime  solutions,  leaving  the  skins  in  each  for  a  varying  number 
of  days,  according  to  the  type  of  skins  and  the  time  of  year. 

Unhairing,  washing,  and  fleshing  then  follow  in  this  order,  the  hair 
being  separated  into  black  and  white,  and  carefully  gathered  up.  The 
machines  used  are  similar,  but  of  a  lighter  type  than  those  used  for 
hides  and  calf -skins.  After  being  fleshed,  the  skins  are  gristly  and 


^58 


i 


tough,  and  in  order  to  alter  this  condition  they  are  given  a  strong 
bating  with  dog-manure  or  Oropon.  They  are  then  scudded,  (or 
"slated,"  to  use  strict  goat  terminology),  washed,  and  gone  over  by 
hand,  after  which  they  are  ready  to  leave  the  beam  house. 

Most  goat-skins  are  "tanned"  by  the  two-bath  chrome  process  al-    Chroming 
ready  described  in  a  previous  chapter.     Between  the  chrome  bath  and 
the    "hypo"   they   are    almost   invariably   struck    out   to    remove    all 
wrinkles.     After  the  second  bath  they  are  placed  on  horses  to  drain, 
and  are  then  ready  to  be  shaved. 

A  few  of  the  thickest  goat-skins  have  a  thin  split  taken  off  the  butt; 
the  majority,  however,  are  shaved  until  the  skin  is  of  an  even  thickness. 
They  are  then  sorted  for  colors  or  blacks  and  sent  to  the  fat-liquoring    Fat- 
room.     After  the  skins  have  been  dyed  and  drummed  in  fat-liquor,    liquoring 
they  are  put-out.    This  operation,  similar  to  setting-out,  "brings  down" 
the  grain  and  produces  a  smooth  surface.     The  leather  is  then  well 
oiled  on  the  grain  and  hung  up  to  dry  for  a  certain  length  of  time, 
after  which  the  skins  are  allowed  to  "lie  in  crust"  until  they  are  ready 
to  be  damped  in  sawdust  and  staked. 

Before  seasoning,  the  edges  are  trimmed,  and  the  unshaved  parts  of 
the  flesh  sides  are  buffed.  Seasoning  is  very  important  in  this  kind  of  Finishing 
leather,  and  there  are  an  infinite  number  of  combinations  used  to  lay  a 
good  foundation  for  glazing.  If  a  dull  finish  is  to  be  produced  the 
seasoning  is  very  much  lighter  and  the  leather  is  either  plated  or 
ironed  by  hand. 

Kid  leather  is  marked  by  an  unusually  fine  and  characteristic  grain, 
which  looks  particularly  well  after  it  has  been  glazed.  It  is  lighter  in 
substance  than  calfskin,  but  more  closely  knit,  and  for  these  reasons 
forms  an  ideal  material  for  ladies'  shoes.  Moreover,  goat-skin  can 
be  dyed  a  great  number  of  different  shades  of  color  which  are  not 
ordinarily  used  for  calf  or  side  leather. 


Dull 


159 


CHAPTER  XIII 
OTHER  UPPER  LEATHER 

The  great  majority  of  boot  and  shoe  uppers  are  made  from  calf, 
goat,  or  side  leather.  Before  proceeding,  however,  to  a  brief  consider- 
ation of  other  light  leathers,  such  as  those  used  for  gloves,  bags,  and 
book-binding,  it  is  necessary  at  least  to  mention  a  few  of  the  materials 
less  commonly  used,  but  nevertheless  very  important,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  shoes. 

It  has  been  noted  that  horse  hides  and  colt-skins  are  employed  for 
the  manufacture  of  patent  leather.  Their  use  is  not,  however,  entirely 
restricted  to  the  production  of  this  one  finish.  Horse  hides  are  finished 
in  many  ways  similar  to  side-leather,  and  particularly  the  "shells,"  or 
quarters  of  the  butt,  constitute  the  only  material  from  which  real  crup, 
or  cordovan  leather,  can  be  made.  A  horse  perspires  through  its  skin, 
— which  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle  do  not, — and,  therefore,  its  hide  has 
a  porous  quality  which  many  manufacturers  consider  advantageous 
from  the  point  of  view  of  ventilation.  The  shells  are  thicker  and  have 
a  superior  grain  to  the  rest  of  the  hide,  for  which  reason  they  were 
prized  even  in  mediaeval  times.  Cordovan  leather  remains  today  the 
most  durable  of  all  the  upper  leathers;  its  two  disadvantages  are  its 
rather  heavy  stiff  quality  in  contrast  to  calf -skin,  and  the  fact  that 
the  threads  of  the  seams  of  cordovan  shoes  are  almost  invariably  cut 
in  a  short  time  by  the  hardness  of  the  leather. 

The  skins  of  the  Australian  kangaroo  yield  a  very  fine,  soft,  light 
leather,  similar  to  the  best  calf-skin,  and  are  used  to  a  certain  extent  in 
this  country  for  high-grade  shoes.  Occasionally,  also,  one  sees  boot 
uppers  made  of  various  kinds  of  deer-skin,  but  much  of  the  white 
leather  known  as  "buck-skin"  is  made  from  the  pelts  of  sheep. 

There  is  probably  no  one  animal  from  which  such  a  variety  of 
products  are  obtained  as  from  the  sheep.  Besides  mutton  and  wool, 
the  sheep  yields  a  pelt  from  which  are  made  an  extraordinary  number 
of  different  kinds  of  leather.  In  the  following  chapters  we  shall  see 
how  some  of  the  other  leathers  are  produced,  but  for  the  moment  we 
are  concerned  only  with  the  manufacture  of  leather  which  goes  into 
the  making  of  shoes. 


60] 


Sheep-skins  usually  come  to   the  tanner  after  they   have  been  de- 
wooled  at  the  pullery.    This  is  sometimes  done  by  sweating,  but  more   Beam 
often   by   a   depilatory   agent   such   as   lime  or   sodium  sulphate   and    "ouse 
sulphuric  acid.     Nevertheless,  a  secondary  liming  is  given  at  the  tan- 
nery in  order  that  the  short  fibres  may  be  completely  removed.     The 
latter  operation,  known  as  "cobbing,"  is  similar  to  unhairing  and  is 
followed  by  fleshing. 

From  this  point  the  treatment  of  the  skins  varies,  according  to  the    "Skivers" 
kind  of  leather  it  is  desired  to  make.     The  thickest  skins  are  usually    and 
split  into  "skivers"  (grain  splits)  and  "linings"  (flesh  splits)  ;  skivers    "Linings" 
may  then  be  tanned  and  finished  for   upper  shoe  leather,  much  the 
same  as  calf  or  goat  skins.     The  splitting  is  done  on  a  machine  with 
an  oscillating  knife,  which  varies  considerably  from  the  hide  splitter. 
The  thinner  skins  are  often  finished  for  upper  leather  without  splitting. 

The  grain  of  sheep-skin  is  soft  and  particularly  adapted  to  printing    Artificial 
or  embossing.     Skivers  are,  therefore,  the  best  possible  material  for    Grains 
artificial  graining,  and  there  are  a  great  number  of  imitation  grains 
produced  on  sheep-skin,  which  bear  a  very  close  resemblance  to  the 
original.     Cheaper  grades  of  suedes  are  also  made  by  finishing  sheep 
leather  on  the  flesh  side.     The  flesh-splits  are  not  extensively  used  in 
making  shoes,  except  for  shoe  linings  and  backings.     We  shall  see  in 
ihe  next  chapter,  however,  that  they  are  used  for  a  variety  of  other 
purposes. 


Boarding  the  Grain 


CHAPTER  XIV 
OIL  TANNAGE  OF  "CHAMOIS"  LEATHER 

Many  people  today  do  not  realize  that  the  term  "Chamois"  has 
nothing  but  an  historical  meaning,  at  least  when  applied  to  the  wash 
leather  commonly  known  by  that  name.  The  species  of  Alpine  goat 
from  whose  skin  this  leather  was  originally  derived  is  practically 
extinct,  and  the  article  we  know  as  "chamois"  is  made  from  the  "lining" 
of  a  sheep-skin. 

The  very  best  quality  of  linings  are  usually  made  into  parchment, 
but  the  vast  majority  are  oil-tanned  and  used  either  for  wash  or  glove 
leather.  We  have  noted  how  the  skins  were  split  after  coming  out  of 
nzmg  lime.  The  next  operation,  so  far  as  the  linings  are  concerned,  consists 
of  removing  the  excess  gelatinous  matter  by  a  machine  similar  to  the 
flesher.  This  treatment,  known  as  "frizing"  is  often  used  to  remove 
the  grain  where  the  skin  is  too  thin  to  be  split.  For  cheaper  grades 
of  chamois  the  linings  are  sometimes  re-split,  instead  of  being  frized. 

De-liming  is  then  usually  accomplished  by  means  of  an  acid  bath  and 
a  thorough  rinsing  in  water,  after  which  the  linings  are  given  a  severe 
kneading  in  order  to  make  them  susceptible  to  the  oil  treatment.  The 
necessary  mechanical  action  is  sometimes  obtained  by  means  of  a 
drum-tumbler,  but  a  particularly  violent  machine,  known  as  the  faller- 
stocks,  is  installed  in  most  tanneries.  The  linings,  having  been  thor- 
oughly beaten  and  softened,  are  now  hung  to  drain  until  they  reach  a 
sammed  condition. 

The  actual  tannage  consists  in  impregnating  the  raw  material  with 

animal  oil  and  then  allowing  it  to  oxidize.     Cod,  whale,  shark,  and 

menhaden  oils  are  the  most  commonly  used  in  this  country.    The  lining 

Oiling  are  placed  flat  in  a  vat,  one  at  a  time,  and  oil  is  poured  over  each. 

After  remaining  thus  for  a  time  they  are  again  "stocked"  so  that  the 

oil  may  penetrate  thoroughly.    Next  they  are  oiled  again  as  before,  and 

Oxidation       re-stocked,  the  total  number  of  oilings  and  stockings  depending  upon 

the  individual  tanner's  ideas. 

The  oxidation  of  the  oil,  and  incidentally  the  real  tanning  of  the 
leather,  is  now  brought  about  by  spontaneous  heat,  the  linings  being 


'Stocking" 


(62} 


placed   in   covered   boxes   and   carefully   watched.     The   oxidation   is 
complete  when  no  further  heat  is  generated. 

Finishing  wash  leather  consists  first  of  thorough  cleansing  and  Finishing 
drumming  in  fresh  water.  The  uncombined  oil  is  then  pressed  out, 
and  the  leather  is  hung  to  dry.  The  familiar  processes  of  damping 
in  sawdust  and  staking  then  follow,  after  which  the  leather  is  pared, 
smoothed  with  pumice  on  both  sides,  and  stretched  out  for  its  final 
drying. 


Pressing  Sheep  Skins 


CHAPTER  XV 


Suede 


Preparation 
for  Grain 
Leather 


Tawing 


Ageing 


Finishing 


TAWING  GLOVE  LEATHER 

Chamois  leather,  or  thin  chromed  flesh  splits  are  used  for  making 
suede  gloves,  but  these,  while  exceedingly  popular,  are  easily  soiled 
and  very  difficult  to  clean.  Most  of  the  glove  leather  used  is  made 
by  a  different  process  and  is  finished  on  the  grain  side,  although  recent 
innovations  have  made  the  ooze  or  suede  leather  far  more  practicable 
than  formerly. 

Lamb  and  kid  skins  are  the  favorite  raw  material  of  the  glove 
leather  manufacturer,  but  light  goat-skins  and  skivers  are  also  ex- 
tensively used.  Europe,  India,  and  Turkey  furnish  the  best  skins, 
quite  a  few  of  which  are  now  being  shipped  pickled  in  barrels.  After 
assorting  the  skins  and  soaking  them  to  remove  salt,  most  tanners 
apply  a  paste  of  lime  and  red  arsenic  to  the  flesh  side.  By  this  means 
the  lamb's  wool  and  kid  hair,  both  of  which  are  valuable,  are  loosened 
and  easily  removed  either  by  machine  or  by  hand.  The  skins  are  then 
usually  soaked  in  lime  liquor,  fleshed,  washed,  trimmed,  and  severely 
bated.  After  they  are  taken  out  of  the  puer  they  are  drenched  in  bran 
solution  and  scudded,  before  they  are  finally  ready  for  the  tawing 
process,  which  converts  them  to  leather. 

Alum  or  formaldehyde  are  the  astringents  which  form  the  basis  of 
almost  all  tawing  liquors,  a  much  used  mixture  being  composed  of: 
alum,  egg-yolk,  flour,  salt  and  water.  The  process  is  usually  carried 
out  in  a  drum.  A  pure  alum  tannage  results  in  stretchy  leather  which 
does  not  hold  its  shape  and  is  not  very  warm,  while  formaldehyde  will 
produce  a  soft,  white,  washable  leather  which  lacks  substance.  Various 
combinations  are  therefore  used  to  obtain  a  material  which  will  satisfy 
in  all  respects. 

Drying,  damping,  staking,  and  sometimes  shaving,  follow,  much  as 
in  the  manufacture  of  chromed  leather.  After  being  staked  the  leather 
is  dried  at  high  temperature  and  allowed  to  "age"  for  several  weeks. 
The  latter  is  a  very  important  feature  characteristic  of  this  particular 
industry. 

The  next  processes  consist  of  dyeing,  and  fat-liquoring  or  re-tawing, 
Some  glove  leather,  notably  that  tawed  with  formaldehyde,  requires 
considerable  filling  in  the  fat-liquoring  process.  After  staking,  the 
grain  is  brushed,  seasoned,  glazed,  and  ironed,  while  the  flesh  side  is 
pared  and  fluffed.  There  are  a  great  many  different  methods  of  dyeing, 
which  are  highly  interesting,  but  cannot  be  touched  upon  here,  and 
there  are  almost  as  many  finishes  as  there  are  glove  leather  tanners. 


(64 


Glazing  Machine 


> 


"Morocco' 


Upholstery 


Light  Bag 
Leather 


CHAPTER  XVI 
BOOK,  BAG,  AND  UPHOLSTERY  LEATHER 

Side  leather  splits  and  skivers  are  used  for  making  book  leather,  but 
the  best-known  and  most  popular  leather  binding  is  that  known  as 
"Morocco."  The  latter  was  first  made  in  Spain  before  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  continues  to  be  produced  now  by  essentially  the  same  process 
of  tanning  goat-skins  in  sumach  liquor.  The  old  method  of  "bottle 
tanning"  consisted  in  sewing  the  skin  into  a  bag  inside  out,  leaving  an 
opening  at  the  neck,  and  filling  it  with  the  liquor,  but  this  has  now  been 
supplanted  by  more  modern  devices  such  as  paddle-vats  and  drums. 
The  characteristic  "grain"  of  Morocco  is  obtained  by  crushing  and 
embossing  it  in  various  ways.  India  tanned  goat-skins  can  be  re- 
tanned  in  sumach,  and  when  so  treated,  yield  an  inferior  grade  of 
Morocco. 

Most  of  the  leather  used  for  heavier  bags  and  upholstery  of  furni- 
ture is  made  from  "spready"  hides.  The  latter  are  also  extensively 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  various  grades  of  automobile  upholstery, 
— which  of  recent  years  has  become  an  item  of  considerable  importance. 
The  finest  grades  are  made  from  the  grain  splits  and  go  into  the  up- 
holstery of  high-priced  automobiles,  while  the  various  flesh  splits  are 
finished  into  leather  for  medium  and  low-priced  cars. 

Some  bag  leather  is  produced  by  the  chrome  process,  but  most  of  it 
is  still  vegetable-tanned.  The  lighter  bag  leathers,  such  as  those  used 
for  pocket-books  and  purses,  are  frequently  made  from  skivers,  which 
are  particularly  adapted  for  artificial  graining.  A  great  number  of 
imitations  of  various  rare  leathers  are  made  by  embossing  and  print- 
ing on  the  grain  of  sheep-skins.  Moreover,  the  bag  and  book-leather 
field  is  that  which  has  been  invaded  the  most  successfully  by  manu- 
facturers of  various  kinds  of  substitutes  and  imitation  leathers  made 
of  other  substances  than  the  skins  of  animals. 


66 


PART  FOUR 

THE  ECONOMIC  DISTRIBUTION 
OF  THE  INDUSTRY 


Serial  Table  Unhairing  Machine 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  WORLD'S  SUPPLY  OF  RAW  MATERIAL 


The  available  statistics  in  regard  to  the  animal  population  of  the 
world  are  so  defective,  particularly  since  the  War,  that  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  only  a  very  rough  idea  of  the  world's  total  supply  and  its 
distribution.  It  has  been  estimated  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  War 
there  were  approximately  517,000,000  cattle  and  calves;  520,000,000 
sheep;  155,000,000  goats;  and  126,000,000  horses  (including  mules 
and  asses  in  some  countries).  These  figures  are  far  from  accurate, 
and  particularly  that  for  goats  is  probably  much  too  low,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  supply  in  China  is  unknown.  During  the  last  year  before 
the  War  the  world  consumed  roughly  3,400,000,000  pounds  of  hides 
and  skins,  of  which  about  one  third  was  consumption  of  domestic  raw 
stock  in  various  countries,  while  two  thirds  was  exported  from  raw 
stock  producing  countries  to  manufacturing  countries. 

Estimates  made  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
since  the  outbreak  of  the  War  tend  toward  the  conclusion  that  the 
world's  supply  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  is  more  or  less  stationary. 
The  War  has  undoubtedly  caused  great  wastage,  but  experience  in  the 
past  has  shown  that  the  animal  population  of  countries  ravaged  by 
warfare  has  recuperated  remarkably  fast.  It  would  appear  that  the 
production  of  sheep  has  been  falling  off  somewhat  since  1907,  while 
cattle  have  remained  approximately  the  same,  and  the  supply  of  goats 
is  really  an  unknown  factor.  After-the-War  estimates  place  the  num- 
bers of  cattle  in  some  of  the  leading  producing  countries  as  follows: 

India  129  million  head 

U.  S.  A.  66 

Russia  38 

Brazil  37 

Argentine  35 

Germany  25 

France  13 

U.  K.  of  G.  B.        12 

355     leaving  about  150  million  unaccounted 
for. 


World's 
Animal 
Population 


Distribution    • 


Cattle 


{69) 


It  would  be  impossible  to  attempt  to  show  the  distribution  of  goats, 
Sheep  and  but  the  largest  quantities  are  known  to  be  in  India,  China,  Russia, 
Goats  Turkey,  and  Mexico.  As  to  sheep,  a  rough  estimate  would  place  the 

distribution  about  as  follows: 

Europe  150  millions 
Australasia  98 

Asia  97 

South  America  72 

Africa  53 

North  America  52 


522 

U  S  Cattle         ^e  cattle  an^  sheep  population  of  the  United   States  since  1910 
and  Sheep      shows  an  increase  of  five  million  head  of  cattle  and  a  decrease  of  seven 
and  a  half  million  sheep. 

Cattle  Sheep 

1910  61,7  millions                 52,4  millions 

1911-15  avge.  58,0  51,4 

1916  62,0  48,6 

1917  64,5  47,6 

1918  67,5  48,6 

1919  68,4  48,8 

1920  68,3  47,1 

1921  66,1  45,0 

The  domestic  production  of  hides  and  skins  yields  enough  to  supply 
our  leather  industry  with  about  55%  of  its  cattle  hides,  48%  of  its 
calf-skins,  30%  of  its  sheep-skins,  and  practically  none  of  its  goat-skins. 
It  is  therefore  quite  evident  that  our  tanners  must  obtain  a  large  pro- 
portion of  their  raw  material  from  such  foreign  countries  as  have  a 
surplus  for  export. 


$70 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
IMPORTS  OF  RAW  MATERIAL  INTO  THE  U.  S. 

Before  taking  up  the  imports  of  hides  and  skins  from  a  statistical 
point  of  view,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  note  a  few  particulars  as  to  the 
methods  whereby  American  tanners  obtain  their  materials  from  foreign 
sources. 

By  far  the  largest  bulk  of  cattle  hides  imported  into  this  country 
are  derived  from  South  American  countries,  as  may  be  noted  from 
the  figures  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.  The  majority  of  these  hides 
are  "frigorificos"  which  are  imported  in  a  wet  salted  condition,  chiefly 
from  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  recently  from  Brazil.  Several  large 
tanners  of  heavy  leather  have  their  own  purchasing  agents  in  South 
America,  who  buy  direct  from  the  freezing  plants,  quite  a  number  of 
which  are  controlled  by  American  interests.  Some  of  these  represen- 
tatives act  as  agents  for  several  tanners,  and  also  there  are  American 
brokerage  houses  which  buy  for  account  of  various  tanners.  The 
largest  Argentine  hide  brokers,  on  the  other  hand,  maintain  offices  in 
New  York  and  Boston  and  sell  direct  to  the  American  manufacturers. 

Other  South  American  hides,  such  as  "saladeros"  and  "mataderos," 
as  well  as  dried  hides,  are  collected  throughout  the  country  by  large 
native  concerns,  from  whom  the  American  buyer  makes  his  purchases, 
although  "saladeros"  and  "mataderos"  are  also  bought  direct  by  Amer- 
ican brokers. 

American  buyers  do  not  as  a  rule  travel  through  the  Far  East. 
Asiatic  hides,  mostly  dry,  are  collected  by  various  native  and  European 
traders  and  sold  by  them  to  consumers  in  this  country,  or  to  American 
hide  merchants.  Indian  and  Javanese  water-buffalo  hides  are  becoming 
quite  a  large  item  for  use  in  making  cheap  chrome  sole. 

Europe  has  always  been  our  chief  foreign  source  of  supply  for  calf- 
skins, the  best  grades  coming  from  France  and  Scandinavia  and  the 
largest  quantity  from  Russia.  The  latter  source  has  been  practically 
unavailable  since  the  War,  but  imports  from  the  rest  of  Europe  are 
slowly  getting  back  to  normal.  India  supplies  large  quantities  of 
cheaper  grades  of  calf -skins  and  kips,  which  are  purchased  by  Ameri- 
can tanners  through  European  or  native  merchants. 


Frigorificos 


Other 

South  Amer. 
Hides 


Oriental 
Hides 


Calf-skins 


S7U 


Sheep-skins 


Goat-skins 


Calf-skins 


Before  the  War  the  Australasian  sheep-skin  business  was  handled 
through  London,  and  American  buyers  used  to  contract  for  large 
supplies  in  that  market.  Most  of  this  trade  is  now  moving  direct 
from  Australia  to  this  country,  and  there  are  quite  a  number  of  Amer- 
ican buyers  purchasing  for  tanners  both  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia. 
A  considerable  proportion  of  the  South  American  sheep-skin  business 
is  controlled  by  American  owned  packing-plants,  but  there  are  also  a 
very  large  number  of  native,  French,  British,  and  German  houses  in 
that  market. 

A  comparatively  great  number  of  American  goat  tanners  are  repre- 
sented by  purchasing  agents  in  India  and  China,  one  agent  frequently 
acting  for  several  principals.  The  large  importers  of  skins  usually 
have  their  exclusive  buyers. 

The  following  figures,  abstracted  from  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce trade  reports  will  perhaps  give  a  more  complete  view  of  the 
hide  and  skin  imports. 

(in   even   thousands) 


1918 

1919 

1920 

1913 

Ibs. 

$ 

Ibs. 

$ 

Ibs. 

$ 

Ibs. 

$ 

Buffalo   Hides 

5,818 

1,547 

15,620 

3,463 

9,484 

2,721 

16,234 

2,790 

Calf-skins 

7,583 

2,954 

64,555 

33,653 

35,132 

19,250 

94,559 

26,295 

Cattle   Hides 

221,051 

52,030 

407,282 

125,590 

275,067 

85,475 

268,042 

46,299 

Goat-skins 

62,364 

30,490 

133,657 

95,557 

80,205 

88,693 

96,250 

24,790 

Horse,    colt,    etc. 

4,988 

720 

28,053 

7,246 

16,846 

4,255 

15,642 

3,176 

Sheep-skins 

52,464 

17,402 

85,032 

36,521 

82,751 

38,230 

71,785 

12,395 

Kangaroo 

679 

733 

1384 

1,363 

1,389 

1,481 

1,097 

719 

Other 

6,933 

2,168 

9,256 

3,116 

9,110 

3,828 

4802 

923 

TOTAL 


361,891  $108,044    744,836  $306,510    509,983  $243,934    568,411  $117,387 


It  is  interesting  to  note  from  these  figures  how  the  first  year  after 
the  War  the  imports  in  pounds  more  than  doubled,  and  in  dollars 
almost  trebled,  falling  off  both  in  pounds  and  dollars  in  1920.  A 
comparison  with  1913  shows  the  difference  still  existing  from  pre-war 
times.  The  following  tables  will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  where  the 
bulk  of  the  imports  come  from. 

Out  of  about  4,285,000  calf-skins  weighing  35,132,286  pounds,  and 
costing  $19,250,661.00  which  were  imported  in  1920: 


France  supplied  exactly 

The  rest  of  Europe,  roughly 

British  India 

Canada,  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  the  Argentine,  (each 

roughly  2,700,000) 
And  the   rest  of  the  world  about 


8,201,685  pounds 
7,500,000  pounds 
4,980,902  pounds 

8,100,000  pounds 
7,000,000  pounds 


72 


Out  of  about  7,000,000  cattle  hides  weighing  275,066,507  pounds   Hides 

and  imported  during  1920  at  a  total  cost  of  $85,475,324.00: 
Argentine   supplied  113,117,368  pounds 

Canada  26,567,282  pounds 

Uruguay  25,905,130  pounds 

Brazil  19,488,355  pounds 

Columbia  9,977,059  pounds 

Other  countries  about  ^  80,000,000  pounds 

(Of  the  "other  countries"  India,  Mexico,  France,  Cuba,  Venezuela,   and  China 
follow  in   that  order.) 

About   35,200,000    sheep-skins,    weighing   82,750,537   pounds,    and   Sheep-skins 
costing  $38,299,658.00  were  imported  in  1920.    Of  these 

23,900,000  pounds  came  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
13,680,000  pounds  came  from  Argentina 
11,950,000  pounds  came  from  Canada 
5,000,000  pounds  came  from  British   India 
4,700,000  pounds  came  from  British  South  Africa 

The  remaining  skins  came  from  various  South  American  and  European  countries, 
with  a  few  from  Asia. 

Out  of  47,000,000  goat-skins,  weighing  80,204,607  pounds  and  cost-    Goat-skins 
ing    $88,692,434.00,    British    India    and   China   supplied   by    far   the 
heaviest  proportion 


British  India 
China 


28,310,320  pounds 
19,061,548  pounds 


About  10%  of  the  total  Hides  and  Skins  imported  into  the  country 
in  1920  were  brought  in  through  the  Port  of  Boston,  and  of  these 
60%  were  financed  by  acceptances  of  The  First  National  Bank  of 
Boston.  In  other  words  this  one  bank  financed  6%  of  the  entire 
country's  imports  of  hides  and  skins. 

The  Branch  of  The  First  National  Bank  of  Boston  in  Buenos  Aires 
finances  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  hides  and  skins  exported  from 
Argentina. 


J73J 


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CHAPTER  XIX 
EXPORTS  OF  LEATHER  FROM  THE  U.  S. 

Whereas  as  we  have  seen  the  United  States  is  dependent  upon  the  rest 
of  the  world  for  about  two  fifths  of  its  hides  and  skins,  this  situation 
is  reversed  when  it  comes  to  the  finished  product.  Before  the  War 
this  country  controlled  about  25%  of  the  world's  leather  trade,  but 
during  the  War  this  figure  is  estimated  to  have  jumped  for  a  time  to 
about  70%.  At  the  present  time  it  is  believed  to  have  fallen  off  so 
that  we  may  be  said  to  do  about  one  third  of  the  world's  business  in 
leather.  During  the  past  year,  however,  largely  due  to  unsettled 
conditions  in  Europe  as  evidenced  by  exchange  rates,  our  exports  of 
leather  have  fallen  off  in  much  larger  proportion  than  our  imports  of 
hides  and  skins. 

In  order  to  become  aware  of  the  full  significance  of  these  figures  it 
is  necessary  to  study  the  quantity  figures  as  well  as  the  dollar  amounts. 
Sole  leather  formerly  constituted  by  far  the  most  important  export 
item,  but  has  yielded  both  to  patent  and  upper  leather.  The  reason 
that  the  United  States  used  to  export  so  much  sole  leather  to  Europe 
was  that  the  hemlock  tree  is  found  only  in  this  country  and  Canada,  Sole 
and  that  hemlock  tanned  sole  leather  will  hold  hob-nails  better  than  Leather 
any  other  kind.  Since  the  War  England  has  been  able  to  supply 
herself  with  sole  leather  because  of  the  expansion  undertaken  during 
the  period  of  hostilities.  Furthermore,  with  exchange  against  us,  and 
general  conditions  of  such  a  nature  that  Europe  is  buying  of  us  only 
things  of  the  utmost  necessity,  it  is  easily  comprehensible  that  the 
demand  for  hemlock  sole  from  this  country  has  fallen  off. 

Although  European  production  of  sole  leather  was  stimulated  by 
the  War,  France  and  Germany,  the  greatest  pre-war  producers  of  high- 
grade  upper  leather,  were  unable  to  keep  up  their  normal  production. 
Accordingly  the  opportunity  arose  for  American  tanners  not  only  to 
sell  their  upper  leathers  in  Europe,  but  to  capture  great  foreign  fields    Upper 
such  as  South  America  as  well.     With  Germany  eliminated,  American    Leather 
patent  leather  dominates  the  world's  market,  and  glazed  kid  also  is 
almost  entirely  an  American  product.     How  long  this  condition  will 
last  depends  not  so  much  upon  the  recuperation  of  Europe  as  upon 


the  energy  and  intelligence  with  which  the  American  tanners  cater  to 

their  newly-won  foreign  trade. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  results  of  the  War,  so  far  as  our  leather 

industry  is  concerned,  was  the  surprising  growth  of  the  glove  leather 
Glove  branch  in  this  country.     Before  the  War  almost  all  our  glove  leather 

Leather          was  imported,  mostly  from  Germany,  imports  in  1913  amounting  to 

$2,384,667.    In  spite  of  much  higher  prices  per  foot,  the  1919  imports 

were  only  $789,098  and  last  year  we  actually  exported  $2,198,759. 


J76J 


CHAPTER  XX 
MARKETING  AND  PRICES 

Having  now  obtained  a  superficial  view  of  the  raw  material,  the 
various  processes  of  manufacture,  and  lastly  of  the  relative  position  of 
the  United  States  in  this  industry,  it  remains  only  to  show  briefly  in 
what  manner  the  raw  and  finished  products  are  bought  and  sold,  and 
how  the  prices  of  both  fluctuate. 

Hides,  as  we  have  seen,  come  primarily  from  the  North  and  South 
American  meat-packing  establishments.     Many  of  these  packers   are   Marketing 
affiliated   with   sole   leather  tanneries   to   which   they   sell   their   hides    Hides 
direct,  and  a  great  many  large  independent  users  of  hides  send  their 
buyers  to  Chicago  and  even    to    Buenos    Aires.      Hides    other    than 
"Packers"   or  "Frigorificos"   are  more  frequently  collected   by   hide 
merchants  who  in  turn  sell  to  the  tanners. 

Domestic  calf  and  sheep-skins  are  frequently  sold  direct  by  the  killer 
to  the  tanner,  but  imported  calf,  goat  and  sheep-skins  are  often  brought 
into  the  country  by  merchants  and  brokers.  The  largest  tanners,  how- 
ever,  send  out  their  own  buyers  to  foreign  countries. 

Sole  leather  is  sold,  as  we  have  previously  noted,  on  a  basis  of 
cents  per  pound,  while  upper  leather  prices  are  per  square  foot.    Sole   Sole 
leather,  moreover,  is  sold  according  to  tannage  (oak,  hemlock,  union,    Leather 
etc.),  and  according  to  what  section  of  the  hide  it  consists  of  (backs, 
bends,  shoulders,  bellies,  heads).    A  great  deal  depends  upon  how  the 
leather  is  trimmed,  it  being  a  custom,  for  instance,  to  trim  bends  for 
shoe-manufacturers  wide,  while  those  for  the  repair  trade  are  cropped 
close.     Sole  leather  is  usually  sold  by  the  tanner's  own  selling  organ- 
ization to  the  shoe-manufacturers  and  sole-cutters,  although  some  finds 
its  way  into  consumption  through  the  hands  of  sole  leather  dealers. 

There  is  a  distinct  contrast  between  the  sole  and  upper  leather  trades 
from  the  point  of  view  of  organization.  The  comparatively  heavy  in- 
vestment and  slow  turn-over  of  the  sole  leather  manufacturer  have 
tended  to  concentrate  this  business  in  the  hands  of  a  few  large  concerns, 
while  the  opposite  conditions  have  caused  a  greater  distribution  in  the 
manufacture  of  light  leathers.  Moreover,  upper  leather  is  sold  at  a 
certain  price  per  foot  for  each  grade  and  finish,  no  difference  being 


$77 


made  for  different  sections  of  the  skin.  Since  there  are  a  considerable 
number  of  small  tanners  it  is  natural  that  much  more  of  their  product 
should  pass  through  the  hands  of  dealers  and  commission  houses  before 
reaching  the  manufacturer. 

The  fluctuation  of  prices  presents  a  most  interesting  field  for  study, 
particularly  during  the  last  five  years,  but  it  is  not  possible,  within 
the  confines  of  this  booklet,  to  do  more  than  indicate  what  the  general 
Prices  trend  has  been.     The  accompanying  graphs  show  the  course  of  hide 

and  sole  leather  prices,  and  calf-skin  and  calf  leather  from  1913  to 
the  end  of  1920.  Comment  upon  them  is  unnecessary  except  to  point 
out  that  the  first  quarter  of  1921  has  witnessed  an  even  further  decline 
which  would  bring  all  four  curves  substantially  down  to  or  below 
their  levels  at  the  beginning  of  1913.  Prognostications  are  always 
dangerous,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  moderate  recovery  cannot  be  far 
distant.  Whether  the  level  of  stabilization  will  be  substantially  above 
that  of  1913-1914  is  a  matter  of  conjecture,  depending,  as  do  all 
things  pertaining  to  the  economic  future,  upon  the  adjustment  in 
Europe. 


J78 


1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

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Price  Fluctuation 


SIX  SALIENT  POINTS  ABOUT 
THE  FIRST  NATIONAL  BANK  OF  BOSTON 

AND    THE 

SHOE  AND  LEATHER  INDUSTRIES 

1 .  The  Five  Largest  Domestic  Producers  of  Raw  Hides 
and  Skins  are  customers  of  The  First  National  Bank 
of  Boston. 

2.  6%   of  all  the  Hides  and  Skins  Imported  into   the 
country  in   1920  were  financed    by   Acceptances   of 
the  First  National  Bank  of  Boston,  without  taking  ac- 
count of  imports   indirectly  financed  by  this   bank 
through  loans  to  importers  and  tanners. 

3.  Out  of  about  750  Leather  Manufacturers  in  the  country 

24%  are  in  New  England 

10%  are   Customers  of  The  First  National  Bank 

of  Boston. 

4.  Out  of  about  1300  Shoe  Manufacturers  in  the  country 

48%  are  in  Massachusetts 

10%  are  Customers  of  The  First  National  Bank 

of  Boston. 

5.  85  %  of  all  the  leather-working  and  shoe-manufacturing 
machinery  used  in  the  country  is  made  by  customers 

of  The  First  National  Bank  of  Boston. 

6.  Besides  this  there  are  hundreds  of  merchants,  dealers, 
jobbers,  brokers,  wholesalers,  and  retailers  of  shoes 
and  leather  or  manufacturing  supplies,  who  maintain 
their  accounts  at  this  institution. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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LIBRARY  L\ 
JAN  3 

REC 

31  1958 

19&' 

23JAN'59AH 


REC'D  LD 

;JAN  9     W59 


LD  21A-60m-4,'64 
(E4555slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

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